s^  -f RACTICAL 


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A   DICTIONARY^ 


OF  — 


Practical    Apiculture. 


GIVING   THE   CORRECT   MEANING   OF    NEARLY    FIVE     HUNDRED 
TERMS,    ACCORDING    TO    THE    USAGE    OF    THE    BEST 
WRITERS.      INTENDED    AS    A    GUIDE    TO    UNI- 
FORMITY  OF    EXPRESSION    AMONGST 

BEE  -  KEEPERS. 

With   Numerous  Illustrations,  Notes  and   Practical  Hints. 


BY    JOHK    PHIN,    ^ 

AUTHOK     Ol'      "HOW     TO     TISE     THE     MICKOSCOPE, "     ETC.        EDITOR    OF 
"THE  YOUNQ  SCIENTIST." 


E.  P.  NOLL  &  CO. 


THE  INDUSTR       21  n.  seventh  st.        ^^  COMPANY. 

PHILADELPHIA.        PA. 

(Copyright  Scairea,  1884,  iy  yo/in  P/itu 


Eiil(;rcil  Ai-L-(jr.liiiK  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  Iho  Year  1884. 

BY  JOHN  PHIN. 

Ill  till!  Offii'o  of  tlii^  Lihrariiui  of  Congn'.ss,  at  AVasIiiii;,'inii.  D.  C. 


The  compilation  of  the  following  collection  of  terms  used  in  Bee- 
keeping was  commenced  some  years  ago,  when  the  author  held  the 
position  of  Professor  of  Agriculture  in  the  Agricultural  Colleire  of  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania.  We  believe  the  first  Lectures  on  Apiculture 
ever  delivered  in  any  College  or  Technological  School  in  this  country, 
and  practically  illustrated  by  bees  and  hives,  were  tliose  given  by  tlie 
author,  during  the  year  1867,  at  tlie  institution  just  named. 

In  preparing  his  lectures,  the  author  was  impressed  with  the  im- 
portance of  securing  uniformity,  accuracy,  and  detlniteness  in  the 
terms  used,  and  as  a  guide  for  himself  and  students,  he  compiled  a 
brief  vocabidary,  extending  to  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  vocables. 
For  some  years  subsequent  to  this  time,  he  was  unable  to  devote 
any  attention  to  bee-keei)ing  ;  the  subject  consequently  dropped  from 
his  mind,  the  MSS.  was  laid  away  with  other  things,  and  by  the  merest 
accident  escaped  the  disastrous  tire  at  :S7  Park  Row,  New  York,  which 
destroyed  the  author's  working  library,  in  .January.  1881.  as  only  a  few 
days  before  the  Are  occurred  the  box  containing  it  was  removed  to 
his  residence.  Having  been  recently  placed  in  a  position  to  resume 
his  interest  in  that  most  fascinating  of  all  pursuits— Apiculture— the 
old  notes  were  found,  and  a  perusal  of  them  brought  up  many  strange 
thoughts  and  associations.  A  pretty  wide  reading  of  books  and  jour- 
nals, during  tlie  past  year  or  two,  had  impressed  the  autlior  more 
than  ever  with  the  importance  of  some  general  guide  on  tiiis  subject, 
and  as  the  sanu^  feeling  seemed  to  have  taken  po.ssession  of  the  minds 
of  many  prominent  apiculturists,  it  was  decided  to  publisli  it. 

To  tills  end  the  entire  vocabulary  was  re-written  and  revised,  so 
that  the  work  lias  been  brought  down  to  the  latest  date.  Few  persons 
can  have  any  idea  of  the  amount  of  labor  that  this  has  involved,  but 
notwithstanding  the  apparently  very  simple  character  of  the  vohime 
which  is  the  result,  the  number  of  general  lexicons,  special  treatises 
on  bees  (from  old  Gervase  Markham,  1610.  «lown  to  Alley's  work  on 
Queen-Rearing),  journals  and  technical  works  which  have  been  laid 
under  contribution,  is  a  surprise  to  the  autlior  himself,  now  that  the 
work  is  completed.  He  has  taken  nothing  on  trust,  but  has  en- 
deavored to  refer  to  original  authorities  in  every  case,  and  as  tlie 
great  libraries  of  New  York  are  singularly  deficient  in  Morks  on  bee- 
keeping, he  has  been  compelled  to  rely  ri'hoUy  on  his  own  collection. 
This  may  pos.sibly  induce  the  reader  to  exercise  more  than  usual 
leniency  in  regard  to  the  shortcomings  of  the  book. 

A  word  or  two  in  regard  to  the  authorities  upon  whom  we  have 
relied  may  not  be  out  of  place.  These  authorities  are  of  two  very  dis- 
tinct kinds  :  1.  Works  and  papers  on  Apiculture  ;  and  2.  Dictionaries 
and  treatises  on  Technology.  _     -  tt^*^*^*^ 


ii  prkPace. 

It  Is  an  iiniKriiinato  fact  tliat  most  of  tlio  writers  on  bei-k»>epin{,' 
havp  b«'cn  rlolk-it'iit  in  •roneral  eiliication— sonu*  of  tlieni  even  lanienl- 
In^  tills  fact  in  their  works.  Of  course  there  are  some  notat)le  excep- 
tions -  Markliam  (UllO).  Warder  (UlTC).  Dunbar,  Cotton.  IJevun,  Lang- 
sirolli.  Cook,  and  a  few  otiiers.  We  tiu'retbre  find  words  used  by  sucli 
writers  in  ditVerent  senses,  and  in  many  cases  improperly— as,  tor 
example,  the  words  hatch,  hybrid,  rabbet,  etc.  Now,  while  we  have 
eidered  our  pri:tesi  aj-ainst  tlu'  improper  use  of  well-known  words, 
\\y  must  renu-mber  tliat  in  the  false  senses  thus  <jiven  to  them,  they 
have  crept  into  ireneral  use.  and  such  use  is  not  to  l)e  lightly  champed. 
As  llersihcl  well  says:  "Hardly  anytliin<?  can  counterbalance  the 
evil  of  dislurbln;^  well-established  names,  which  have  once  acquired  a 
general  circulation."  Moreover  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
functions  of  a  technical  dictionary  like  tlie  present  are  two-fold:  It 
slmuld  not  oidy  jrive  the  rijilit  word  lor  the  rifjlit  i)lace,  but  it  should 
enable  us  to  understand  the  wrilinirs  of  all  those  wlio  have  treated 
nimn  the  sul)ject.  We  at  lirsl  proposed  to  conllne  this  lexicon  to 
those  words  only  which  are  in  jjeneral  use,  but  we  soon  found  the  im- 
possibility of  so  doinji.  The  ^reat  difficulty  of  drawinj:;  any  well- 
tletliicd  line  reiidereil  such  a  coiuse  out  of  the  question.  We  have 
therefore  ifiveii  every  word  specially  related  to  liee-keepinjr.  with  tlie 
•'Xceplion  of  "jcneral  botanical  and  entomoloirical  terms.  To  liavt'  in- 
cluded tlH'se  would  have  doubled  the  size  of  the  volume,  witliout  any 
(•orrespondiiijr  practical  ^^ain.  St),  too,  we  have  not  deemed  it  advis- 
able to  discuss  the  names  of  spcehil  forms  except  in  a  y:eneral  way. 
Tims  we  ;rive  not  only  Uirr,  but  box  hive,  morablc  frame-hire,  leaf- 
hire,  etc..  but  we  have  not  felt  that  it  came  within  the  scoi>e  of 
our  work  to  ^Ive  descriptions  of  sucli  nutditicalions  as  the  American 
hive,  the  Callup  hive,  etc.,  etc.  Neither  have  we  attempted  to 
exclude  objectionable  words.  We  have  rather  aimed  to  j^ive  every 
woril.  simply  content iny:  ourselves  with  marking:  those  that  are  obso- 
lete or  Improper.  Kveii  such  an  absurd  term  as  hio//i»h7/<t  finds  its 
place  In  this  jiiclionary.  so  that  the  student  may  be  warned  aifaiust  its 
use.  Then-fore,  even  the  cat aloirues  of  dealers  have  been  ransacked 
l>ir  terms  and  ilescriptioiis  of  various  articles,  llaviuir  secured  the  list 
of  vocables,  (he  next  step  was  to  note  their  meaninj:  and  mark  those 
which  are  obsolete  or  improper.  In  this  connection  it  will  be  found 
by  the  careful  student  that  as  rejrards  t"chnical  subjects,  we  have, 
iuiion;.'st  our  ilirtioiiiiries,  no  vlliimile  authority  that  is  to  say.  none 
IVoiii  whose  decisions  we  do  not  feel  perfectly  at  liberty  to  appeal 
uilhoul  hesitation.  Those  who  have  studied  our  best  and  ablest  dic- 
tionaries must  have  fell  that  in  many  points  their  deficiencies,  as  re- 
;rards  technical  sub)ecis.  are  so  jrreat  that  no  independent  worker  will 
c.iisent  to  be  trammeled  by  them.  We  acknowledge  them  as  au- 
thorities only  irheu  we  l,iioir  Ihem  to  he  riyhl. 


PREFACE.  iii 

The  list  of  the  ilictionarios  wliich  have  served  us  in  the  preparation 
of  this  volume,  includes  all  those  of  most  importance.  Besrinuins: 
with  Bailey  (173')).  Walker  (1798),  and  adding  Johnson.  Ogilvie  (-'The 
Imi)erial  Dictionary."  4  vols.,  edited  by  Annandale),  Richardson  (edi- 
tions of  1838  and  1865).  Webster.  Worcester,  and  several  minor  ones, 
Ave  have  genemlly  been  able  to  get  not  only  the  usual  meaning  of  the 
word  under  consideration,  but  its  scope  and  and  proper  application. 
When  any  doubt  occurred  as  to  the  propriety  of  the  application  of  any 
word,  we  have  sought  lirm  gi'ound  through  the  medium  of  its  history 
and  etymology,  and  in  this  direction  Skeats'  Dictionary  has  proved 
invaluable.  For  special  information  in  regard  to  chemical  subjects 
we  have  relied  upon  Watfs  ••  Dictionary  ot  Chemistry"  (8  vols.),  and 
the  works  of  Wagner,  Mnspratt,  etc.  The  technical  dictionaries  of 
Ure  (4  vols.  1878).  Brande  (3  vols.  1875).  and  the  "  Cyclop*dia  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology,"  edit»'d  by  Todd  (5  vols.  v.  d.)  have  often 
been  of  service.  From  recent  general  cyclopaedias,  properly  so- 
called,  we  have  never  received  any  very  great  assistance,  and  there- 
fore have  never  made  any  special  eflorts  to  add  them  to  our  library. 
From  the  older  cyclopedia  of  Rees,  and  the  •'  Penny  Cydopa'dia," 
much  interesting  historical  matter  may  be  gleaned.  These  we  have, 
as  also  the  "Lexicon  Techuicum  "  of  Harris  (1710).  Jamieson's  "Dic- 
tionary of  Arts  and  Sciences,"  Gwilt's  "Cyclopaedia  of  .Architecture," 
Nicholson's  "  Architectural  Dictionary."  etc..  all  of  which  have  been 
occasionally  consulted  with  good  results.  The  Botanical  Glossaries  of 
the  late  Prof.  Balfour,  and  of  M.  C.  Cooke,  we  have  referred  to  for 
some  words.  In  entomology.  Westwood.  Burmeister.  Kirby  and 
Spence.  Harris.  Duncan.  Packard  and  Shuckard  have  been  at  hand. 

In  matters  of  general  apicultnral  practice  we  have  depended  largely 
upon  our  own  experience,  which  began  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury ago.  and  enables  us  to  look  back  with  interest  to  the  time  when 
we  procured  our  tirst  Italian  Queen  from  the  early  product  of  the 
importation  of  S.  B.  Parsons.  This  we  have  supi)lemented  with  the 
records  given  by  others  in  the  journals  devoted  to  apiculture.  We 
were  among  the  early  subscribers  to  the  American  Bee  Journal  and 
although  we  did  not  take  it  for  many  years,  we  have  now  a  nearly 
complete  set  of  this  most  valuable  periodical. 

Thro)ighout  the  work  we  have  endeavored  to  reach  a  dispassionate 
and  unprejudiced  conclusion  as  to  the  value  and  signilicance  of  each 
word  as  used  by  the  best  authorilies.  It  is  only  in  a  few  cases  that  we 
have  obtruded  our  own  personal  preferences  and  opinions  as  against 
the  fjeneral  custom.  In  some  of  these  instances  we  are  so  clearl>  and 
decidedly  right  that  the  words  we  condemn  will  never  again  be  used 
by  respectable  m  riters  in  the  senses  which  we  have  condemned.  Such 
words  are  hatch,  rabbet,  and  a  few  others.  Then  we  have  words  in 
regard  to  which  we  know  we  are  right,  though  we  are  not  quite  so 


IV  PREFA<?E. 

sure  of  being  able  to  convince  others  of  the  fact ;  fertile  and  hybrid 
are  jrood  examples  of  such  words.  And  lastly,  there  are  the  com- 
pound words  formed  from  the  word  egg :  Egg-workers,  egg-drones, 
egg-queens.  In  regard  to  these,  all  we  can  say  is  that  if  we  are  not 
right  we  ought  to  be.  Piiilologically  and  scientifically  we  are  correct; 
whether  others  will  see  it  in  the  same  light  that  we  do  is  of  course  a 
question  to  be  determined.  We  await  the  decision  of  the  majority. 
It  may,  not,  however,  be  out  of  place  to  present  here  the  reasons  lor 
tlie  change,  which  we  have  i)roj)osed.  In  speaking  of  the  difl'erent 
kinds  of  eggs  laid  by  the  queen  (perhaps  difl'erent  conditionetl  eggs 
would  be  more  correct,  as  all  the  eggs  are  probably  of  one  kind)  it  is 
usmd  to  speak  of  "worker  eggs"  and  "  drone  eggs,"  when  we  wish 
to  designate  eggs  which  respectively  will  produce  drones  or  workers. 

Now,  to  the  ordinary  reader,  knowing  nothing  of  bee-keeping,  but 
thoroughly  understanding  English,  these  terms  would  signify  eggs 
laid  by  workers  and  by  <li-ones,  just  as  we  speak  of  hen  eggs,  duck 
eggs,  turkey  eggs,  when  we  refer  to  eggs  laid  by  turkeys,  ducks  and 
luMis.  And  ill  fact  the  term  worker  eggs  does  sometitues  mean  eggs  laid 
hi/  vorlcers.  Tlu'  ordinary  expressions,  therefore,  are  not  only  non- 
sense, l)ut  absolutely  incorrect  in  some  cases ;  for  example,  we  have 
no  such  thing  as  "drone  eggs;"  drones  do  7iot  lay  eggs.  But  if  we 
use  the  woril  egg  as  a  prefix  to  the  words  drone,  worker,  queen,  we 
then  exi)ress  accurately  the  facts  in  the  case  and  "egg-drones," 
"egg-workers,"  and  " egg-cpieens,"  denote  queens,  workers  and 
drones  in  the  condition  of  eggs.  We  tluis  seciu'e  sclent itic  accuracy, 
and  avoid  the  double  nu'aning  whidi  attaches  at  ju-esent  to  the  ex- 
pression "  worker  egirs." 

We  have  included  in  this  Dictionary  the  names  of  the  difl'erent  new 
races  of  bees  tluit  have  been  described  and  recommended.  It  is 
projier  to  say  that  in  this  department  we  have  had  little  or  no  experi- 
ence ;  the  descriptions  have  been  coined  from  the  best  acci-ssible 
sources,  and  are  given  for  what  Ihey  are  worth. 

In  sending  forth  this  little  work  the  author  woidd  ask  those  into 
whose  hands  it  nuiy  fall  to  give  him,  either  personally  or  through  the 
Hee  Journals,  such  criticisms  on  mistakes  and  omissions  as  llu'ir 
knowledge  may  suggest.  All  such  criticisms  will  be  taken  kindly, 
where  kindly  nu-ant,  for  no  one  appreciates  more  fiUly  than  he  does 
the  shortcomings  of  this  work.  And  although  it  is  one  of  the  sound 
canons  of  literature— one  which  the  writer  has  never  yel  violated  — 
tliat  an  author  should  not  reply  to  his  critics,  yet  in  this  case,  as  he 
lielieves  that  the  general  good  will  be  best  served  by  so  doing,  he  will 
either  accejit  any  sensible  corrections  that  may  be  offered,  or  give  his 
reasons  for  rejecting  them. 

JOHN  PHIN. 

Cedar  Brae,  Pater  son,  N.  J.,  March,  1884. 


INTRODUCTION. 


"The  imposition  of  a  name  on  any  subject  of  contemplation,  be  it  a 
material  object,  a  phenomenon  of  nature,  or  a  group  of  tacts  and  rela- 
tions, looked  mion  in  a  peculiar  point  of  view,  is  an  epoch  in  its  his- 
tory of  ureat  importance.  It  not  only  enables  us  readily  to  refer  to  it 
in  "conversation  or  writinjj:,  witliout  "circumlocution,  but,  what  is  of 
more  consequence,  it  gives  it  a  recognized  existence  in  our  own 
minds,  as  a  matter  for  separate  and  peculiar  consideration  ;  places  it 
on  a  list  for  examination  ;  and  renders  it  a  head  or  title,  under  which 
information  of  various  descriptions  may  be  arranged  ;  and,  in  conse- 
quence, tits  it  to  perform  the  office  of  "a  connecting  link  between  all 
tile  subjects  to  which  such  information  may  refer." 

iiir  J.  F.   W.  UersckcU. 

Not  only  is  our  language  governed  by  out"  ideas,  but  our 
ideas,  thoughts,  and  reasoning  are  too  often  governed  by 
our  language.  Loose  language  is  the  invariable  accom- 
paniment of  indefinite  thoughts,  while  that  which  can  be 
clearly  expressed  is  in  general  clearly  and  definitely  com- 
prehended. And  the  logician  well  knows  the  dangerous 
fallacies  which  may  be  introduced  by  giving  one  meaning 
to  certain  terms  at  one  time,  and  a  different  meaning  at 
another.  "The  use  of  hinguage  is  not  confined  to  its 
being  the  medium  through  which  we  communicate  our 
ideas  to  one  another;  it  fulfils  a  no  less  important  function 
as  an  instrument  of  thought,  not  being  merely  its  vehicle, 
but  giving  it  wings  for  fliglit.  Metaphysicians  are  agreed 
that  scarcely  any  of  our  intellectual  oi)erations  could  be 
carried  on,  to  any  considerable  extent,  without  the  agency 
of  words.  None  but  those  who  are  conversant  with  the 
philosophy  of  mental  phenomena  can  be  aware  of  the  im- 
mense influence  that  is  exercised  by  language  in  promoting 
the  development  of  our  ideas,  in  fixing  them  in  the  mind 
and  detaining  them  for  steady  contemplation.  In  every 
process  of  reasoning,  language  enters  as  an  essential  ele- 
ment,    Words  are  the  instruments  by  which  we  form  all 


VIU  INTRODUCTION. 

our  abstractions,  by  which  we  fasliion  and  embody  our 
ideas,  and  by  which  we  are  enabled  to  glide  along  a  series 
of  premises  and  conclusions  with  a  ra])idity  so  great  as 
to  leave  in  tlie  memory  no  trace  of  the  successive  steps  of 
the  process ;  and  we  remain  unconscious  how  much  we 
owe  to  this  i)Otent  auxiliary  of  the  reasoning  iaculty." — 
Roget. 

It  is  obvious,  however,  that  if  language  is  to  serve  us  in 
any  such  capacity  as  this,  its  terms  must  be  accurate  and 
precise,  and  this  precision  which  is  so  desirable  for  our  own 
sakes  becomes  imperative,  if  we  would  seek  to  learn  froni 
others  or  to  teach  them.  If  in  ordinary  technical  matters 
the  terms  used  are  indefinite,  we  must  fail  to  understand 
or  to  be  understood,  and  if  they  have  several  difterent 
meanings,  we  will  soon  find  ourselves  in  the  condition  of 
the  workers  at  Babel — asking  for  bricks  and  getting 
mortar. 

Care  should  therefore  be  taken  to  secure  uniformit\',  and 
this  can  only  be  done  by  carefully  studying  the  different 
meanings  'which  have  been  accepted  for  (lifferent  words, 
and  rigorously  adopting  one  to  the  exclusion  of  all  the  rest. 

It  is  true  that  in  addition  to  accuracy  a  certain  degree 
of  elegance  is  desirable.  This  can  best  be  attained  by 
careful  attention  to  the  principles  which  govern  the  con- 
struction and  use  of  language,  and  the  exclusion  of  certain 
words  which  are  inelegant,  unpronounceable,  and  formed  in 
violation  of  the  accepted  canons  of  i)hilology.  A  general 
treatise  upon  this  subject  would  occupy  more  space  than 
this  entire  volume,  but  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  state 
a  few  obvious  elementary  principles. 

1.  The  first  rule  which  ought  to  govern  us  in  the  use  of 
technical  terms  is  that  if  jiossible  no  word  should  have  more 
than  one  meaning.  Ignorant  and  uneducated  persons  who 
devise  a  new  article  are  very  apt  to  call  it  by  some  name 
which  has  already  been  appropriated  to  something  else, 
and  the  consequence  is  that  our  technical  dictionaries  are 
full  of  words  of  double  meaning.  Better  banish  a  word 
altogether  than  allow  it  to  have  two  meanings.  Fortun- 
ately, however,  in  bee-keeping,  things  have  not  gone  so 
far  that  it  is  impossible  to  introduce  a  reform,  provided  suf- 


INTRObUCttOiT.  IX 

ficient  autliority  he  given  to  the  riglit  words  to  enforce  their 
use  hy  \vritei"s  on  subjects  connectetl  with  this  art.  The 
words,  colony,  liatch,  hive,  stock,  swarm,  and  some  others, 
are  all  used  at  present  in  several  senses,  but  the  true  meaning 
of  each  is  so  obvious  that  it  forces  itself  ui)on  the  student 
as  soon  as  it  is  presented,  and  then  there  is  no  danger  of 
its  ever  afterwards  being  used  in  a  wrong  sense  excei)t  in  a 
moment  of  thoughtlessness  from  force  of  habit.  We  must 
acknowledge,  however,  that  this  latter  danger  is  one  that  is 
not  to  be  despised. 

The  words  cap,  clamp,  rack,  transfer,  etc.,  have  each 
more  than  one  legitimate  meaning,  and  it  a\  ill  be  difficult, 
perhaps,  to  eradicate  altogether  the  confusion  which  thus 
arises.  We  have  made  some  j^rogress  in  our  eftbrts  to 
present  the  subject  clearly  and  soundly,  but  tlie  matter  is 
not  yet  fully  matured.  It  demands  very  thorough  examin- 
ation and  great  caution,  and  should  be  fully  discussed  in 
the  public  journals  before  it  is  embodied  in  a  book. 

2.  The  second  rule  is,  that  well-known  words,  when 
used  in  a  technical  sense,  should  depart  to  as  slight  a  de- 
gree as  possible  from  the  meaning  which  they  have  in 
ordinary  language.  It  will  be  found  that  the  great  ma- 
jority of  technical  words  are  merely  ordinary  A\ords  with  a 
somewhat  new  meaning  added ;  therefore  they  should 
never  acquire  a  .:ignification  Avhich  shall  be  opposed  to 
this  meaning.  This  occurs,  however,  more  frequently 
than  one  would  suppose,  and  always  without  any  good 
reason.  Let  us  take  the  word  rabbet  as  an  example.  As 
ordinarily  used,  and  as  applied  technically  by  the  carpen- 
ter, it  has  a  well-detined  and  fixed  meaning,  and  signifies 
the  recess  which  is  made  in  the  edge  of  a 
board  by  removing  a  portion  of  the  wood. 
Thus,  for  example,  in  the  accompanying  cut 
R  is  the  rabbet.  With  the  movable  frame  hive 
came  a  necessity  for  a  recess  in  which  the 
arms  of  the  frames  might  rest,  and  as  Ais 
recess  was  called  a  rabbet,  the  word  came  to 
be  commonly  used  amongst  bee-keepers  ;  but, 
BABBET  ■  unfortunately,  to  their  minds  it  conveyed  an 
idea   equivalent  to  that  of  bearing  or  support. 


INTKODfCTlOK. 


And  so  when  it  occurred  to  somebody  to  attach  a  thirt 
strij)  of  metal  to  the  edge  of  the  rabbet,  so  as  to  ninke  it 
impossible  for  the  bees  to  glue  the  arms  fast,  these  strips 
were  called   rabbets ! 


TIN    BEARIXIJ. 


In  the  accompanying  figure  is  shown  a  section  of  the 
U])per  edge  of  the  end  of  a  liive,  B,  and  on  the  rabbet  is 
se  n  a  curved  ])iece  of  tin,  a,  one  edge  of  which  is  in- 
tended to  support  the  arm,  c,  of  the  frame,  'lliese  tin 
strips,  A,  are  catalogued  and  sold  as  rabbets — the  fact  being 
that  they  are  just  the  Ojjposite  of  rabbets !  !  The  proper 
name  for  them  is  bcai'i/ii^^s  or  siippoiis. 

Another  word  which  has  been  changed  somewhat  in  its 
meaning,  though  not  wholly  by  bee-keepers,  is  the  word 
fvifile.  Of  this  word  Worcester  judiciously  remarks: 
'■'■  Feriilc  is  applied  especially  to  the  soil ; /;7/////// to  trees 
and  vegetables;  prolific  to  animals"  (See  Worcesta's  Die- 
tiotiary,  s.v.  fcrtilt').  It  is  now  used  by  writers  on  bee- 
keejjing  to  signify //r^v/rj';//,  and  the  word  feitilize  is  em- 
employed  as  equivalent  to  iiiiprci^)mtc.  'J'his  misuse  of  the 
word  came  about  through  the  botanists  in  this  wise: 
Botany  being  a  favorite  study  with  young  ladies  of  such 
an  age  that  these  words  could  not  be  used  without  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  indelicacy,  teachers  very  commendably 
looked  about  for  some  other  expression,  and  adopted 
fertile  and  its  derivatives.  From  the  botanists  it  passed  to 
the  bee-keepers,  but  without  the  same  good  reasons.  To 
Its  use  there  are  many  objections,  and  it  is  strange  that  it 
should  ever  have   been  adopted,  when  the  proper   word 


INTRODUCTION.  XI 

has  been  in  general  use  so  long.  This  word  \%  fecundate* 
with  its  derivatives  as  given  in  the  body  of  this  work. 

This  tendency  to  soften  such  expressions  as  convey 
coarse  or  indelicate  ideas  is  a  marked,  and,  from  a  certain 
point  of  view,  a  laudable  trait ;  but,  unfortunately,  it  is  apt 
to  introduce  confusion  by  destroying  the  shar|)  clearness  of 
our  expressions,  and  by  giving  more  than  one  meaning  to 
each  word.  The  tendency  is  well  illustrated  in  the  mod- 
ern use  of  the  word  meat,  which  formerly  was  generally 
used  to  signify  food  of  any  kind,  but  has  now  come  to 
serve  as  a  substitute  for  the  word  flesh — the  latter  having 
been  banished  as  conveying  ideas  of  carrion  and  objection- 
able objects.  If  we  ask  a  modern  housekeeper  if  she  has 
any  meat  in  the  house,  she  will  certainly  say  "  No !  "  unless 
her  larder  is  provided  with  flesh  of  some  kind,  just  as  the 
little  girl  was  puzzled  to  know  why  her  pa[)a  saitl  grace 
before  tea — there  bein.<if  no  flesh  on  the  table,  and  her 
catecliism  expressly  giving  the  grace  as  "to  be  said  before 
meatr 

This  tendency  towards  euphemism,  as  it  is  called,  that 
is,  a  softening  of  speech,  is  very  general.  It  is  seen  in  the 
use  of  the  words  "  ])lain  "  for  "  ugly  ;  "  "  fast  "  for  "  dissi- 
pated ;  "  "gallant"  for  "licentious,"  and  others.  But  it 
tends  to  defeat  the  very  object  which  it  has  in  view,  as  is 
well  illustrated  by  Mill  in  his  "  System  ot  Logic,"  by  the 
following  anecdote  :  At  a  certain  period  in  French  his- 
tory the  expression  "  to  esteem  "  came  to  denote  more  than 
modern  dictionaries  give  as  its  meaning.  In  short,  it  be- 
came a  euphemism  for  licentiousness.  A  certain  lady  of 
the  Court  of  France,  wiien  at  confession  one  day,  acknowl. 
edged  that  she  had  an  "  esteem  "  for  a  certain  cavalier. 
"  Combien  de  fois  I'avez  vous  estime  ?"  was  the  question 

*  For  authorities  on  this  point,  see  Cuvier's  '*  Animal  Kintrdom." 
ediedby  Prof.  W.  B.  Carpenter,  tlie  well-l\nown  author  of  a  standard 
work  on  Physiolojry.  and  Prof.  J.  O.  Westwood,  whose  worlv  on  Ento- 
molojry.  in  2  vols.,  is  an  acknowledged  authority.  These  two  gentle- 
men are  perhaps  the  highest  authorities  in  the  language.  In  giving 
the  technical  terms  used  in  Zoology,  at  page  28  we  llnd  the  following : 
"  When  there  are  sexes  the  male  sex  fecundates."  In  the  translation 
of  Huber's  work,  publisheil  in  Edinburgh  and  London  (Second*  Edi- 
tion, 1808),  the  word  fecundate  is  always'  used,  .*??«;  pa^es  8,  18,  20, 
28,  33,  37,  14,  etc,  etc, 


Xll  INTRODUCTION. 

■which  came  quickly  back,  and  this  liaving  got  abroad,  put  a 
stop  forever  to  that  use  of  the  word. 

The  euphemism  of  to-day  becomes  the  indehcate  ex])res- 
sion  of  to-morrow,  and  while  we  have  really  gained  noth- 
ing, we  have  introduced  confusion  and  error. 

3.  Scientific  precision  is  an  end  that  should  always  be 
carefully  sougiit  in  our  expressions.  We  do  not  mean  by 
this  that  many-syllabled  scientific  terms  should  be  used  in 
preference  to  simpler  words  found  in  common  use,  but 
where  the  ordinary  expression  is  loose  and  indefinite,  the 
scientific  word  should  always  be  used.  A  good  example 
of  this  is  found  in  the  words  moth  and  ntiller.  Miller  is  no 
doubt  a  proi)er  general  term  for  the  insect  that  has  caused 
so  much  injury  to  bees,  but  then  it  is  applied  e(|ually  to 
any  small  butterfly  as  well  as  to  a  moth  proper.  Moth,  on 
the  other  hand,  has  come  to  have  a  precise  scientific  mean- 
ing, and  is  altogether  the  best  word.  On  the  other  hand, 
good,  i)lain,  common  words  are  sometimes  to  be  greatly 
])referred  to  the  scientific  substitutes  used  in  their  place, 
for  the  sim[)le  reason  tliat  the  common  name  denotes  the 
commercial  article,  while  the  scientific  term  can  be 
properly  a[)i)lied  only  to  a  pure  product,  which  bee-keepers 
rarely  use,  and  to  this  extent  it  is  inaccurate.  Such  a 
'\\ox<\\'a  faruia ;  it  formerly  meant  flour  or  meal,  and  has 
been  used  as  a  synonym  for  pollen  ;  it  now  means  starch, 
or  rather  the  pure  starchy  powder  obtained  from  various 
grains.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  true  farina  is  not  used  by 
beekeepers ;  they  use  meal  and  flour;,  and  these  names  are 
altogether  to  be   preferred. 

4.  A  certain  degree  of  elegance  and  force  should  always 
be  souglit  by  every  writer,  and  it  will  be  found  that  short, 
familiar,  anglo-saxon  words  are  always  to  be  preferred  to 
those  long  compounds  adopted  from  other  languages. 
"  Matrimonial  excursion "  is  not  nearly  so  good  as 
"  wedding  flight " ;  "handling"  is,  in  niost  cases,  greatly 
to  be  preferred  to  "manipulation,"  thougli,  the  two  words 
not  being  (juite  fiynonymous,  the  term  "  manipulation," 
which  has  a  sub-audilion  of  ^/<7'(?////a'' which  //<?//(/////!,'■  lacks, 
cannot  be  altogether  dispensed  with.  The  same  is  true  of 
the  wwds  "  ti|)igiilture/'  "  bee-keeping,"  and  scvertil  Pth^rgi 


INTRODUCTION.  Xlll 

The  inappropriate  use  of  high-sounding  words  of  foreign 
origin  is  exceedingly  ridiculous,  and,  strange  to  say,  it  is 
not  always  the  uneducated  that  are  guilty  in  this  resjjcct. 
To  use  a  technical  word  properly  requires  a  knowledge 
not  only  of  language,  but  of  the  arts,  and  with  the  latter 
there  are  but  few  classically  educated  men  who  are  con- 
versant. An  instance  came  to  our  knowledge,  a  short 
time  ago,  where  the  head  master  of  a  classical  school,  not 
a  thousand  miles  from  New  York,  had  presented  to  him 
for  examination  a  new  style  of  joint  for  uniting  the  ])ipes 
forming  the  water  sup[)ly  and  sewage  systems  of  buildings. 
The  word  joints  however,  was  too  simple;  in  his  eyes  the 
term  was  "common,"  and  therefore  "unclean."  Conse- 
quently, throughout  the  whole  conversation  he  substituted 
tlie  word  "articulation"  for  joint —thus  not  only  making 
himself  ridiculous,  but  committing  a  positive  error. 

Hybrid  words,  that  is,  words  which  are  made  up  of 
parts  from  different  languages,  are  always  inelegant,  and 
should  be  rigorously  condemned  and  thrown  out  of  use. 
Such  a  word  is  Bee-cuUiire.  The  first  half  is  English,  the 
second  part  is  Latin,  and  the  whole  may  be  called  "  Maca- 
ronic."* The  word  Apiculture,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a 
legitimate  word,  and  may  well  take  its  place  beside  Agri- 
culture, Arboriculture,  Floriculture,  Horticulture,  Pisci- 
culture, Sericulture,  Sylviculture,  Viticulture,  etc.,  etc.,  al- 
though it  is  not  found  in  the  unabridged  edition  of 
"  Webster's  Dictionary." 

In  some  instances,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to 
adapt  English  words  to  s|)ecial  cases  which  they  do  not 
cover.  This  should  be  avoided,  even  at  the  cost  of  using 
a  purely  Latin  or  Greek  word.  Thus  the  word  midrib  has 
been  used  to  denote  the  septum  or  partition  between  the 
two  sheets  of  cells  which  are  found  in  every  comb.     Now 


*The  term  "  Macaronic"  is  applied  to  prose  or  poetry  in  which  two 
lan<ruanres  are  mixed  up.  eacli  following  its  own  inflections.  The 
well-known  verses,  beginning— 

*'  Felis  sedit  by  a  hole. 
Intenta  she  cum  omni  soul, 

Prendere  rats."  '' 

|"orni  a  good  speQimen  of  macaronic  poetry, 


INTKODUCTION. 


the  word  "  midrib,"  though  good  Enghsh,  does  not  meet 
the  case.  It  is  a  modern  word,  not  found  in  Bailey  (1735), 
Walker  (1798),  Richardson's  Ed.  of  1838,  or  even  in 
Maunder  (1838),  who  jjicked  up  almost  everything  in 
common  use.  Skeat  does  not  give  it.  So  far  as  we 
luive  been  able  to  trace  its  history,  it  would  apjjear  to 
be  a  modern  word  used  only  by  botanists  to  designate 
that  extension  of  the  petiole  which  passes  along  the  mid- 
dle of  a  leaf,  antl  to  apply  it  to  the  thin  sheet  of  wax 
which  forms  the  division  between  the  ends  of  the  two  sets 
of  cells  in  a  piece  of  honey  comb  is  decidedly  wrong.  The 
word  septum,  however,  is  short,  easily  pronounced,  explicit, 
and,  in  spite  of  its  Latin  form,  should  be  adopted.  The 
word  iiiaphnigm  might  be  used,  but  has  never  been  sug- 
gested, so  far  as  we  know ;  it  has  no  advantage  over  sep- 
tui/i,  and  its  length  and  complexity  are  against  it. 


DICTIONARY 


—  OF 


PRACTICAL   APICULTURE. 


Abbreviations. — Certain  words  ill  frequent  xise  are  generally 
abbreviated  or  contracted  by  writers  on  Bee-Keepiug.  This  is 
certainly  nnobjectionable,  being  the  same  practice  followed  by 
botanists  and  others,  and  to  those  who  are  familiar  with  them 
they  cause  no  confusion,  though  beginners  are  sometimes  puz- 
zled. The  following  are  the  principal  abbreviations  that  we 
have  met  in  the  works  in  common  use: 

^\        i   Comb.  L.    Langstroth. 

Cmb.        \  Jj.  i'.     Langstroth  Irame. 

Fdn.     Foundation.  Q.     Quinby. 

H.     Hive.  Q.  F.     Quinby  Frame. 

Abbreviations  which  though  not  peculiar  to  Bee-Keeping  are 
used  in  this  book: 

a.  Adjective. 

n.  Noun. 

q.  V.  Quod  vide — which  see — when  placed  after  a  word  it 
means:  Refer  to  that  word.  Thus:  Comb  (q.  v.)  directs  us  to 
look  up  the  word  Cimib  for  further  information. 

s.  V.  Sub  verbo.  Under  the  word  or  title.  Thus:  s.  t\  Race 
means  that  the  desired  information  will  be  found  under  the 
title  or  heading  Bace. 

i\  Verb. 

In  the  following  pages  we  have  indicated  the  part  of  speech 
of  a  word  only  when  the  same  word  occurs,  sometimes  as  one 
part  of  speech,  and  sometimes  as  another. 

Abdomen. — The  third  or  most  posterior  of  the  sections  into 
which  the  body  of  the  bee  is  externally  divided.  It  consists  in 
the  males  of  seven,  and  in  the  females  of  six  segments.  It  con- 
tains the  principal  digestive  and  respiratory  and  the  whole  of 
t,he  generative  organs. 


D.  H.  HILL  LIBRARY 
North  Carolina  State  College 


8  t)lCT10NAKY    OF  , 

AbllOl'liml  Swarm. — A  swarm  is  abnormal  wben  it  comes  out 
nuder  iiuiisual  conditions.  {Abnormal  meauinf;;  witliont  law  or 
contrary  to  known  laws).  In  many  cases,  however,  a,  colony  leaves 
its  hive  in  a  body  without  really  having  the  swarming  impulse 
(See  Swarming  Impulse).  Colonies  under  such  conditions  can- 
not properly  be  called  swarms.  The  term  Desertimj  Colony  (q.  v.) 
expresses  the  facts  in  a  more  satisfactory  manner. 

Absconding  Swarm. — This  term  has  been  applied  to  a  colony 
of  bees  under  two  very  different  conditions.  The  first  and  un- 
questionably the  proper  signification  is  a  swarm,  which,  forming' 
only  part  of  the  original  colony,  comes  out  iiuder  regular  condi- 
tions and  absconds  or  leaves  for  parts  unknown.  Bat  sometimes 
it  is  applied  to  a  colony  which  deserts  its  hive  in  a  body — a 
phenomenon  only  too  well  known  to  careless  bee-keepers.  la 
the  latter  case  there  is  nothing  of  the  "  swarming  "  character 
about  the  affair  (See  Swarm),  and  the  term  "Deserting  Colony" 
would  express  the  facts  in  a  much  better  manner. 

Adjipter. — "  A  board  to  set  glasses  on." — Keys.  What  is  now 
called  a  Honey-board.  ' 

Adulteration. — "This  term  is  only  properly  applied  to  the 
addinij  of  substances  to  articles  of  commerce,  food  or  drink,  for 
the  purposes  of  deception  or  gain;  but  the  term,  by  magistrates 
or  analysts,  is  often  practically  applied  to  accidental  impurity, 
or  even  in  some  cases  to  actual  substitution." — Blyth.  The  strict 
etymological  meaning  of  the  word  is  the  adding  of  somelhimj 
else,  but  like  most  other  words,  this  one  has  come  to  have  a 
much  wider,  though  quite  legitimate,  signification.  It  includes 
the  taking  away,  as  well  as  the  adding,  of  important  ingredients. 
Thus  tea  and  coffee  may  be  properly  said  to  be  adulterated 
when  the  theine  and  caffeine  have  been  abstracted,  and  sold 
separately,  and  the  leaves  or  ground  berries  are  then  offered 
for  sale  as  new. 

The  more  common  adulterations  of  the  articles  connected 
with  apiculture  will  be  found  iinder  the  heads.  Honey,  Sugar, 
Wax. 

Adulteration  is  one  of  the  greatest  enemies  of  the  bee-keeper, 
as  it  not  only  excites  suspicion  in  the  minds  of  the  public,  but 
by  unfair  competition  lowers  the  price  of  the  pure  article.  Bee- 
keepers throughout  the  country  should  unite  to  secure  laws 
visiting  severe  penalties  upon  this  crime.  We  cannot  trust  to 
our  scientific  professors  to  expose  and  condemn  it,  as  the  his- 
tory of  oleomargarine  very  sadly  showed.  Indeed  the  names  of 
many  of  our  college  professors  are  better  known  in  connection 
with  puffs  of  commercial  articles,  than  for  scientific  research. 
The  reform  must  begin  with  the  people. 

After-Swarms. — Swarms  which  come  out  a  short  time  after 
the  first  swarm  are  called  after-swarms,  and  are  always  led  by 
virgin  queens,  of  which  they  sometimes  contain  several.  When 
sufficient  time  elapses  for  the   supernumerary  queens   to  be  de- 


PRACTICAL    APICULTURE.  y 

Btroyed  in  the  original  stock,  the  new  qiicen  to  be  fecnmlateil, 
ani  queen  cells  to  be  raised  from  her  progeny,  the  swarm  may 
be  called  a  <a/e  swarm,  biit  cannot  be  called  an  after-swarm.  Such 
a  swarm  is  a  prune  swarm,  as  much  as  one  sent  out  in  May,  be- 
cause it  is  led  by  an  old  queen. 

Air-Spaee — Dead. — A  space  filled  with  air  and  so  completely 
enclosed  that  there  is  no  communication  with  the  external  at- 
mosphere. Such  a  space  has  been  recommended  by  many 
prominent  writers  as  being  quite  as  good  a  non-conductor  of 
heat  as  a  similar  space  filled  with  loose  material  like  straw,  dry 
leaves,  chaff,  etc.  Tliis  is  a  great  mistake.  The  air,  owing  to 
its  great  mobility,  carries  the  heat  rapidly  from  one  side  of  the 
apartment  to  the  other-,  and  so  allows  it  to  be  dissipated.  In  fit- 
ting up  hives  with  double  walls  for  the  purpose  of  protecting 
the  inmates  from  great  cold  or  sudden  changes  of  weather,  the 
space  between  the  walls  should  always  be  packed  with  some 
light,  porous  material,  which  will  efifectuallj'  prevent  all  circula- 
tion of  air  in  the  confined  space. 

Albino. — By  this  term  is  properly  meant  a  person  or  animal 
having  an  unnatural  whiteness  of  the  skin  and  hair,  and  what 
are  called  red  eyes,  the  latter  appearance  being  due  to  the  en- 
tire absence  of  pigmentary  matter,  so  that  the  pupil  shows  red. 
The  term  was  first  applied  by  the  Portuguese  to  certain  negroes 
the}'  found  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  who  were  born  mottled 
or  disfigured  with  white  spots.  In  the  albinos  the  eye  is  very 
weak  and  is  of  but  little  use  during  the  daytime,  being  capable 
of  seeing  distinctly  only  in  twilight  or  moonlight.  Various 
races  of  domestic  animals,  as  rabbits,  ferrets,  cats,  etc.,  fre- 
quently show  the  albino  peculiarity. 

So  much  for  the  true  albinos.  The  term  is  sometimes  ap- 
plied by  bee-keepers  to  a  strain  of  Italian  bees  which  are  rather 
lighter  than  usual,  and  which  has  the  rows  of  white  hairs  unusually 
distinct.  "  They  are  not  a  distinct  race.  In  fact  I  have  often  no- 
ticed among  Italians  the  so-called  Albinos." — Cook. 

Alig'Iitiiig'  Board. — A  board  upon  which  the  bees  alight  when 
they  return  to  the  hive.  It  may  either  be  a  jiart  of  the  hive  or  a 
simple  board  laid  in  front  of  the  entrance. 

Apiarian. — The  best  authorities  iise  this  word  as  an  adjective 
only.  Thus  we  speak  of  "  apiarian  i^ursuits,"  "apiarian  pro- 
ducts," "apiarian  implements,"  etc.  The  use  of  the  word  as 
denoting  a  per.o'^n  who  keeps  bees  is  against  good  usage.  See 
Apiai-ist. 

Apiarist. — One  who  keeps  or  cares  for  an  apiary.  A  bee- 
keeper. Sometimes  improperly  called  an  Apiarian. 

Apiary. — A  place  or  establishment  where  bees  are  kept.  The 
term  apiary  may  mean  either  the  locality  or  the  "plant." 
Good  custom  sanctions  both  uses  of  the  word. 

Apiator. — A  bee-keeper. 


to  DICTIONARY    OI* 

Apictilturo. — Bee-keoping;  tlio  care  and  taanagemcnt  of  boes. 
The  word  apic^dture  is  not  recognized  by  niauy  of  onr  standard 
nuthoriiies,  but  we  confess  that  we  cannot  see  any  objection  to 
it.  It  stands  on  the  same  ground  as  arboriculture,  horticulhu-f, 
viliculture,  etc.,  all  of  which  are  generally  accepted.  On  the  gen- 
eral principle  that  a  good  Anglo-Saxon  word  is  ahvaj's  to  be  pre- 
ferred when  it  can  be  used  to  equal  advantage,  we  prefer  the  term 
Bee-Kefp'mg  to  Apiculture,  but  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  V)orne 
in  mind  that  apiculture  has  a  somewhat  broader  signification 
than  bee-keeping.  The  term  bee-keeping,  therefore,  cannot  always 
take  the  place  of  the  word  apiculture. 

Apida;. — The  name  of  the  Family  to  which  the  honej'-bee  be- 
longs. It  includes  several  Gbneka,  one  being  api.s  in  which  the 
bee  is  found.     See  Apis. 

Apis. — The  name  of  the  Genus  in  which  the  honey-bee  is 
found.  Great  differences  of  opinion  exist  as  to  the  number  of 
.<ipecies  which  it  includes.  Westwood  enumerates  eight  species, 
but  later  entomologists  are  inclined  to  regard  most  of  these  as 
mere  varieties.     Prof.  Cook  regards  the  following  as  distinct: 

Apis  dorsata  of  India  and  the  East  Indies,  known  as  the  Great 
Bee  of  Java. 

Apis  Zonula  of  the  same  island. 

Apis  Jndica  of  India  and  China. 

Apis  Florea  of  India,  Ceylon,  China  and  Borneo. 

Apis  mellifica,  our  common  honey-bee,  of  which  the  more  com- 
mon  races  will   be  found   enumerated  under  the  head    Bee  ir 
this  dictionary.     Those   who   wish   to  study  the  ])osition  of  the 
bee  in  the  organic  kingdom  will  find  a   most  admirable  resume 
of  the  subject  in  Prof.   Cook's  "Manual  of  the  Apiary." 

See  also  Race,   Variety,  Species  in  this  work 

Al'tiflciill  Comb.— See  Comb,  artificial. 

Al'titicJal  F«^cmulatioil. — The  impregnation  of  queens  in  con- 
finement.    Sometimes  improperly  called  artificial  fertilization. 

Artificial  Honey.— See  Honey,  artificial. 

Artiflciill  Pastlirag'e. — Plants  yielding  honey  and  raised  by 
cultivation  as  opposed  to  those  that  grow  wild. 

Artificial  Pollen. — Flonr  and  meal  of  various  kinds  arc  errone- 
ously so  called  because  they  are  frequently  used  as  substitutes 
for  the  pollen  of  flowers. 

Artificial  Swarm.  -  See  Swarm,  artificial. 

Atavism. — Tiiis  is  a  medical  term  frequently  used  by  breeders 
of  stock.  It  signifies  the  recurrence  of  any  peculiarity  or  dis- 
ease of  an  ancestor  in  a  subsequent  generation  after  an  inter- 
mission for  a  generation  or  two.     See  Crying  Back. 

Balling  a  Qnecn. — Bees  occasionally  surround  the  queen  in 
a  compact  cluster  or  "  ball."  This  is  more  apt  to  happen  when 
a  strange  queen   is  introduced   to  a  colonj',   but  sometimes  a 


PKACTICAIi    APICULTURE.  11 

colony  will  ball  their  own  queen  if  unusually  excited  or  dis- 
turbed. The  term  is  used  in  either  case.  If  not  soon  released 
the  queen  dies  and  ia  thrown  out  of  the  hive.  Dzierzon  tells  us 
that  bees  sometimes  ball  their  queen  for  the  purpose  of  pro- 
tecting her  from  the  attacks  of  strange  bees. 

Barley  Sugar.— Sugar  boiled  till  it  is  brittle  when  cool  and 
then  candied.  iSo-called  because  it  used  to  be  boiled  with  a  de- 
coction of  barley.     See  Gundy. 

Bar  Hives. — Hives  in  which  the  combs  are  attached  to  bars 
instead  of  being  enclosed  in  frames.  The  bar  usually  corres- 
ponds to  the  top  bar  of  the  ordinary  frame,  and  the  comb  is 
suspended  from  it.  It  was  used  in  early  times,  even  before  the 
invention  of  the /raiue  by  Langstroth.  The  frame  has  entirely 
superseded  it  in  this  country,  though,  strange  to  say,  it  is  still 
used  largely  in  Europe. 

Barren.— Sterile.     Incapable  of  producing  young. 

Bars. — Strips  of  wood  to  which  combs  are  attached  and  from 
which  they  hang  in  bar-hives. 

Bee. — The  term  Bee  or  Honey-Bee  is  properly  applied  only  to 
the  different  species  of  the  genus  Apis  (q.  v.)  which  also  include 
several  varieties  or  races.  See  Breed,  Race,  Vaiidy.  Under  the 
following  heads:  Albino,  Black,  Brown,  Carniolan,  Caucasian, 
Cyprian,  Dalmatian,  Egyptian,  German,  Heath,  Holyland,  Italian, 
Palestine,  Syrian,  will  be  a  found  a  description  of  some  of  the 
races. 

The  term  Bee  has  two  meanings,  just  as  the  word  man  is  used 
in  two  senses.  The  first  and  narrowest  sense  is  that  in  which  it 
is  useil  to  denote  the  full-grown  bee  and  particularly  the  worker 
bee,  when  no  other  is  signified.  The  second  and  broader  signifi- 
cation includes  the  bee  in  every  condition — queen,  drone,  worker, 
egg,  larva,  nymph,  etc. 

The  life-history  of  the  bee  is  briefly  as  follows:  The  males  are 
known  as  drones;  the  perfect  females  as  queens,  of  which  only 
one  IS  normally  found  in  each  colony;  the  imperfectly  developed 
females  as  workers.  Under  normal  conditions  they  are  all  devel- 
oped from  eggs  laid  by  the  queen  or  perfect  female,  and  during 
the  progress  of  this  development  they  pass  from  the  egg  to  the 
larval  condition;  from  the  larva  to  the  pupa  or  nymph;  from  the 
nymph  to  the  perfect  bee— the  time  occupied  in  each  step,  some 
allowance  being  made  for  differences  of  temperature  and  other 
unknown  conditions,  being  nearly  as  follows: 

Egg.  Larva.  Sealed.  Entire  Period. 

^rone 3  days.        6*  days.       14i  days.  24  davs. 

Q'leen 3     ■«  5"     ..  8       "  16      ''     . 

Worker 3     "  5       "  13       "  21      " 

The  pupa  or  nymph  form  is  assumed  only  after  the  larva  has 
been  sealed  for  some  time.  At  first  the  young  bees  do  not  leave 
the  hive  except  for  what  is  known  as  a  "play-spell,"  in  which 


12  DK'TIONAKY    OF 

their  wings  are  probably  hardened  and  their  muscles  strength- 
ened so  as  to  prepare  them  for  long  flights  when  gathering 
honey  and  pollen.  "  The  young  bees  build  the  comb,  ventilate 
the  hive,  feed  the  larvje  and  cap  the  cells.  The  older  bees  for, 
as  readily  seen  in  Italianizing,  the  young  bees  do  not  go  forth 
lor  the  first  two  weeks— gather  the  honey,  collect  the  pollen,  or 
Vjtje-bread,  as  it  is  generally  called,  bring  in  the  propolis  or  bee 
glue,  which  is  tised  to  close  openings  and  as  a  cement,  supply 
the  hive  with  water  (?),  defend  the  hive  from  all  improper  intru- 
sion, destroy  drones  when  their  day  of  grace  is  past,  kill  and 
arrange  for  replacing  worthless  queens,  destroy  inchoate  queens, 
drones  and  even  workers,  if  circumstances  demand  it,  and  lead 
forth  a  jjortion  of  the  bees  when  the  conditions  impel  them  to 
swarm.  When  there  are  no  young  bees,  the  old  bees  will  act  as 
house-keepers  and  nurses,  which  they  otherwise  refuse  to  do. 
The  young  bees,  on  the  other  hand,  will  not  go  forth  to  glean, 
even  though  there  be  no  old  bees  to  do  this  necessary  part  of 
bee-duties." — Cook. 

Numerous  attempts  have  been  made  to  determine  the  number 
of  bees  in  an  oiince,  a  pound,  a  quart  and  a  gallon,  but  their 
weight  and  bulk  vary  so  much  under  different  conditions  that 
the  results  are  not  very  satisfactory.  A.  I.  Root  gives  4.000  as 
the  number  of  bees  in  a  pound.  These  were  probably  well  filled 
with  honey.  Keys,  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century,  pre- 
pared the  following  table  which  does  not  differ  widely  from 
lloot's  estimate. 

NUMBEU,    WKIGHT   AND    MEASUKE   OF   BEES. 

lb.  oz.  dr. 

100  Drones 0  1  0 

21)0  Workers 0  1  0 

4,640         -        1  0  0 

01")         "        \  pint              0  :{  2 

1,8S0         "        i     "                0  «;  f) 

3,6fi0          "         1  quart              0  12  10 

29,280         "        1  peck              0  5  (i 

The  weight  is  avoirdujiois  and  the  measure  the  Winchester 
bushel,  which  contains  215012  cubic  inches.  The  peck  con- 
tains 5375  cubic  inches,  and  Keys  says  that  a  swarm  filling  this 
is  the  least  that  will  prove  productive.  iSee  Xucleits.  He  adds 
that  these  data  are  only  approximative,  as  they  will  never  come 
out  twice  alike. 

Bee-BiiMl. — A  local  English  name  of  the  spotted  flycatcher 
(Muscicapa  grisola),  so  called  from  its  catching  bees.  —  Ogilvie. 

Bee-Box.     A  hive. 

Boc-Bivart,  The  farinaceous  matter  which  forma  part  of  the 
food  of  bees.  Generally  it  consists  of  pollen  but  bees  some- 
times, either  of  their  own  accord  or  under  the  influence  of  tUe 
bee-keeper,  use  flour  ftm\  othev  mfvtters,    See  Pollm, 


PRACTICAT,    APICXTLTCRE.  13 

Bee  Cap. — A  close  fitting  cap  or  hood  used  by  European  bee- 
keepers for  the  same  purpose  as  our  bee-veils  (q.  v.)-  It  seems 
to  us  an  expensive,  awkward,  suffocating  contrivance  when 
compared  with  our  simple  device. 

Bee  Climbers.— Iron  stirrups  with  sharp  steel  points  \isually 
strapped  to  the  leg,  and  used  to  aid  the  bee-hunter  in  climbing 
trees.  Almost  the  same  as  those  used  by  "  line-men  "  when  re- 
pairing telegraph  lines. 

Bee-Culture. — This  word  is  equivalent  to  bee-keeping  and 
apiculture.  If  used  as  two  words  it  might  be  pardoned,  but  as  a 
compound  word,  the  several  parts  being  from  difterent  languages, 
it  violates  the  canons  of  sound  philology  and  should  be  dis- 
carded.    See  Apiculture. 

Bee-Culturist, — One  who  keeps  bees.  This  word  may  not  be 
absolete  but  it  ought  to  be. 

Bee-Dress. — A  suit  so  arranged  as  to  protect  the  entire  person 
from  the  stings  of  bees.  It  is  made  in  different  ways,  for  a  de- 
scription of  which  see  any  good  work  on  bee-keeping. — See  Veil. 

Bee-Eater. — A  bird  that  feeds  on  bees.  There  are  several 
species  included  in  the  genus  Merops,  of  which  the  M.  apiaster 
of  Europe  is  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy  of  its  plumage. — 
Ogilvie. 

Bee-Garden. — An  apiary.  A  garden  or  enclosure  to  set  bee- 
hives in. 

Bee  Glass. — A  glass  in  which  bees  maj'  store  honey. — Brande. 

Bee  Glue. — Another  name  for  propolis  (q.  v.). 

Bee-GlUU. — 1.  Since  the  black  gum  tree  (Nyssa  multiflora), 
one  of  the  largest  trees  of  the  Southern  States  is  almost  always 
found  hollow,  bees  in  the  wild  state  very  frequently  select  this 
tree  for  a  habitation.  Man,  taking  the  hint,  in  early  days  used 
a  section  of  a  hollow  gum  tree  for  a  hive.  Most  hives  were 
therefore  really  gwn-iree  hives,  and  hence  the  term  gum  or  bee-gum 
came  to  mean  any  kind  of  hive.  Properly,  however,  it  signifies 
a  hive  made  of  a  hollow  log  or  tree. 

2.  Propolis  is  sometimes  improperly  so  called. 

Bee  Hawk. — The  honey  buzzard  (Pernis  apivorus),  so-called 
from  preying  on  hymenopterous  insects,  such  as  wasps,  etc. 
Lepidopterous  insects  of  the  genus  Sesia  are  also  often  called 
bee-hawks  or  bee-hawk  moths. — Ogilvie. 

Bee-Herd. — An  old  name  for  a  person  who  takes  care  of  bees. 

Bee-Hive.— See  Hive. 

Bee-Hood.— See  Bee- Cap. 

Bee«House,^The  Imperial  Dictionary  and  others  define  bee- 
house  as  a  house  for  sheltering  hives,  and  this  is  the  generally 
accepted  find,   in  English,  th©  propel'  we^ftiog  of  the  te;HJ. 


14 


DICTIONAKY    OF 


Some  persons  wLo  bave  bad  a  German  training  use  tbe  word  in 
its  German  sense  of  bee-bive. 

Bee-Koeper. — One  wbo  keeps  bees.  See  ApicuUuribl  and  hee- 
caltarisl. 

Bee-Line. — Tbe  sbortest  and  most  direct  line  from  one  place 
to  anotber,  like  tbat  of  u  bee  tbrougb  tbe  air. 

Bee-Louse. — A  curious  parasite  found  on  tbe  boney  bee  and 
named  Braula  ca;oa(Nitzscb).  It  is  not  common  in  tbis  country, 
but  does  considerable  injury  to  bees  in  Soutbern  Europe.  A  fig- 
ure and  very  excellent  description  are  given  in  Prof.  Cook's 
Manual.     See  also  article  Parasite  in  tbis  Dictionary. 

Bee-Martin. — A    local    name  for    tbe    king    bird — Tyrannus 
Cifrolineiisis. 
Bee-Master. — One  wbo  keeps  bees. 
Bee  Motii.-See  3Ioth. 

Bee  Pastiirag'e. — Flov/ering   plants  from  wbicb   bees  gatber 
boney.     It  is  said   to  be  natural  or  wild  wben  it  grows  witbout 
cultivation   and  artificial  wben  it  is  planted  specially  for  bees. 
Some  plants,  sucb  as  tbe  apple,  raspberry,  buckwbeat,  etc.,  oc- 
cupy a  middle  position,  being  cultivated  for  fruit  or  grain,  but 
at  tbe  same  time  yielding  large  quantities  of  boney. 
Bee  Plants.— Plants  tbat  yield  boney. 
Bees-Wax.— See  Wax. 
Bee  Tent. -See  Tent. 

Bee  Tree. — A  tree,  tbe  trunk  or  a  brancb  of  wbicb  is  boUow 
and  inbabited  by  bees. 
Bee  Veil.— See  VeU. 

Bee-Worm. — An  old  name  for  tbe  larva  of  tbe  bee. — Ray. 
Bell-(iilass. — A  glass  vessel,  sbaped  somewbat  like  a  bell. 
Tbey  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  as 
surplus  receptacles  by  Englisb  bee-keepers. 
Tbey  present  a  very  neat  appearance,  and 
wben  tbe  comb  is  built  in  fancy  sbape,  as 
sbown  in  tbe  figure,  tbey  are  quite  orna- 
mental on  tbe  table.  But  boney  stored  in 
sucb  glasses  costs  a  good  deal  more  tban 
wben  stored  in  ordinary  sections. 

Black  Bee.— 1.  Tbe  common  boney  bee; 
tbe  kind  usually  kejit  in  box  bives.  Called 
also  Hroicn  Bee  and  Oerman  Bee.  See  Bace. 
2.  Robber  bees  tbat  bave  lost  tbeir  hair  and 
become  black  and  sbiny  were  supposed  by  Huber  to  be  a  dis- 
tinct kind  of  bee,  and  in  several  works  tbey  are  mentioned  by 
the  name  of  Black  Bees.  They  are,  however,  only  the  commou 
bee. 


BELL-GLASS. 


iPUACTICAL  APICULTURE.  15 

Bottom-Board.  -The  board  which  forms  the  bottom  of  the 
hive.  It  may  be  either  fixed  or  movable.  The  fixed  bottom 
boards  form  part  of  the  hive,  while  in  the  case  of  movable  bot- 
tom boards,  the  hive  is  simply  placed  on  them.  Both  kinds 
have  their  advantages  and  disadvantages.  Van  Deusen  has 
invented  a  clamp  by  means  of  which  the  bottom  board  may  be 
made  either  fixed  or  movable  at  will,  thus  securing  all  the  ad- 
vantages of  both  systems. 

Bottom  Rail. — The  lower  horizontal  bar  of  a  frame. 

Box  Hive. — A  hive  consisting  of  a  plain  box  with  a  few  cross- 
sticks  for  supporting  the  combs,  In  such  a  hive  the  comb  and 
bees  cannot  be  examined  or  handled  and  most  of  the  operations 
of  modern  bee-keeping  are  impossible.  Box  hives  are  therefore 
things  of  the  past,  and  bee-keepers  who  are  behind  the  times 
are  called  "box-hive  men."  When  we  look  back,  however,  and 
866  what  was  accomplished  by  such  men  as  Quinby,  using  box 
hives,  we  cannot  fail  to  be  impressed  with  the  fact  that  thorough 
scientific  work  will  always  produce  good  results  even  with  the 
poorest  implements  and  in  the  face  of  the  most  formidable  diffi- 
culties. 

Those  who  have  read  the  first  edition  of  Qainby's  "Mys- 
teries of  Bee-Keeping  " — a  work  which  will  always  be  a  classic 
no  matter  what  improvements  may  be  male  in  the  art,  will  be 
greatly  amused  at  the  following  extract  from  the  latest  edition  of 
an  English  standard  authorit}%  "  Brande's  Dictionary  of  Science, 
Literature  and  Art."  Under  the  head  "  Hive,"  we  find  this  sub- 
section: 

"  Aine)-ican  Box  Hives.  The  well  known  circumstance  that  bees 
often  collect  enormous  stores  of  honey  when  Iniilding  their 
combs  in  a  large  space  (as  under  the  roof  of  a  house)  has  led  to 
the  design  of  hives  of  immense  size.  Some  employed  in 
America  have  been  found  as  large  as  sentry-boxes.  These  large 
boxes  are  easily  stocked  by  supporting  a  hive  of  bees  on  a  few 
cross-bars  placed  in  the  interior,  when  the  bees  rapidly  extend 
the  combs  below  the  small  hive,  often  completely  tilling  the  box. 
The  plan  is  not  so  advantageous  as  might  at  first  appear,  as  all 
the  combs  contain  wood  and  bee-bread,  and  the  honey  yielded  is 
consequently  always  impure,  and  moreover,  is  not  easily  obtained 
without  destroying  the  bees." 

Shades  of  the  lamented  Quinbj'  — how  is  this  for  a  fair  repre- 
sentation of  the  American  Box  Hive  !  !  This  is  about  on  a  par 
with  Blyth's  "poisonous  honey,  from  the  Savannas  of  New 
Jersey."    See  Honey. 

Box  Honey.— Comb-honey  (q.  v.)  stored  by  the  bees  in  boxes. 

Breed. — n.  A  term  applied  by  stock  breeders  to  races  arti- 
ficially produced  and  established.  It  is  in  this  that  a  breed 
differs  from  a  race  (q.  v.)  and  both  differ  from  a  variety  in  that 
they  have  been  so  established,  either  by  careful  selection  and 
culture  in  the  case  of  breeds  or  by  long-continued  and  potent 


16  DiCTlONABY    OB* 

nml  natural  influences  in  the  case  of  races,  that  all  dangeir  ot 
"crying-back"  (q.  v.)  is  past.  Owing,  probably  to  various 
hitherto  insurmountable  difficulties  in  the  way  of  mating,  we 
have  no  "  breeds  "  of  bees;  we  have  races  and  strauis  (q.  v.)  but 
no  breeds. 

Breed. — v.  1.  To  raise  young.  In  bee-keeping  this  is  gener- 
ally called  brood-rearing  or  biood-raisivg.     See  Raise. 

2.  To  produce  a  distinct  breed.  To  do  this  requires  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  animals  under  experiment  and 
careful  attention  to  certain  laws  which  are  tolerably  well  under- 
stood as  the}'  affect  the  higher  animals,  biit  have  not  been  investi- 
gated in  the  case  of  insects.  But  from  the  fact  that  scientific 
apiculture  is  an  art  of  but  a  few  years  growth,  we  may  reasonably 
hope  for  as  great  advances  in  this  direction  as  has  been  made  in 
the  case  of  cattle  and  horses. 

For  the  present,  however,  we  can  only  follow  the  laws  which 
have  been  found  to  obtain  in  the  breeding  of  cattle,  and  await 
the  discoveries  which  it  is  hoped  that  careful  experimental  in- 
vestigation will  give  us. 

1.  In  attemi^tiug  to  establish  a  new  breed  or  to  improve  an 
old  one,  we  must,  contrary  to  the  usual  opinion,  pursue  a  relent- 
less system  of  breeding  in  and  in,  and  it  is  here  that  the  skill 
and  judgment  of  the  exjiert  breeder  will  be  most  fully  shown. 
We  have  on  the  one  hand  the  danger  of  weakening  the  constitu- 
tion of  our  stock,  and  on  the  other,  the  danger  of  producing  a 
lot  of  mongrels  without  any  fixed  characteristics.  The  experi- 
ence of  all  great  cattle  breeders  has  shown  that  it  is  only  by  in 
and  in  breeding  that  the  tendency  to  "cry  back"  can  be  elimin- 
ated, and  these  men  have  also  shown  that  when  sufficient  care  is 
exercised  in  the  selection  of  the  breeding  stock,  the  danger  of 
weakening  the  constitution  is  not  to  be  feared.  In  this  connec- 
tion it  should  be  remembered  that  all  the  well-marked  native 
races  of  bees  must  have  been  produced  by  a  series  of  in  and  in 
breedings,  combined  with  a  system  of  natural  selection,  which 
allowed  the  survival  of  none  but  the  fittest— all  the  weak  and 
non-prolific,  and  all  the  jioor  honej'-gatherers  being  killed  off 
during  severe  seasons.  It  is  the  same  here  as  with  the  great 
herds  of  cattle  and  horses  which  roam  at  large  in  various 
countries.  The  most  powerful  and  active  bull  or  stallion  obtains 
the  leadership  of  the  herd  and  breeds  in  and  in  with  his  own 
cousins,  sisters,  and  even  daughters,  until  one  of  his  progeny, 
more  powerful  than  he,  displaces  him  in  turn.  But  here  we 
have  the  weak  and  feeble  calves  and  foals  selected  by  the  forces 
of  nature  with  better  judgment  than  ever  man  exercised  and 
killed  off  by  the  inclemency  of  the  weather  as  surely  as  ever 
butcher's  knife  did  its  work. 

2.  It  will  be  found  that  certain  males  and  females  have  the  power 
to  perpetuate  their  own  characteristics  in  their  progeny  more 
powerfully  than  others.  This  is  a  most  important  factor  in  any 
attempt  to  build  up  a  new  breed,  or  to  maintain  or  improve  a 


PEACTICAI,   APICULTURE.  17 

certain  strain.  We  see  it  marked  in  the  haman  family  where 
certain  men  and  women  have  given  origin  to  a  long  line  of 
representatives  which  possess  marked  characteristics.  Stock 
breeders  are  quite  familiar  with  the  fact,  and  there  are  certain 
strains  of  cattle  speciallj'  valuable  for  milk,  butter  or  flesh 
which  owe  their  origin  to  some  well  known  cow  or  bull. 

3.  It  will  be  found  that  the  influence  of  the  male  is  in  general 
(not  always)  more  powerful  than  the  influence  of  the  female 
provided  he  is  pure  bred.  Thus  far  too  little  attention  has  been 
paid  to  the  character  of  the  drones,  though  this  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  when  we  consider  the  great  difficulty  of  the  sub- 
ject. We  must  remember  that  it  would  be  almost  impossible  to 
select  an  individual  drone  as  we  select  a  bull  from  a  cattle-herd 
or  a  queen  from  an  apiary.  It  is  even  difficult  to  make  sure  of 
getting  our  queens  mated  with  the  drones  from  any  given  hive, 
but  even  in  the  face  of  all  these  difficulties,  the  importance  of  the 
subject  must  not  be  forgotten. 

There  are  other  points  which  will  readily  occur  to  the  scientific 
breeder.  Thus  we  must  not  forget  that  the  impregnated  female 
is  herself  influenced  by  the  male.  This  has  not  the  same  im- 
portance with  bees  that  it  has  with  cattle,  but  how  far  the 
impregnation  of  the  queen  may  influence  her  drone  progeny  is  a 
point  that  cannot  bear  to  be  overlooked. 

Lastly,  the  "environment,"  as  evolutionists  call  it,  will,  no 
doubt,  have  something  to  do  with  the  production  of  excellence 
in  any  given  breed,  though  less  here  than  in  cases  where  the 
mother  may  be  trained  or  worked,  as  with  cattle  or  horses.  Pre- 
natal influences  have  a  wonderful  effect  on  the  progeny  of  mam- 
mals, and  may  it  not  be  that  eggs  obtained  from  a  queen  in  the 
height  of  her  productive  power  and  activity  will  produce  far 
better  breeding  stock  than  eggs  from  the  same  queen  when  her 
energies  are  dormant  or  not  fully  developed?  This  brings  up 
the  important  question  of  the  best  age  for  breeding  queens. 
And  does  not  the  quality  of  the  eggs  laid  by  the  queen  in  the 
early  part  of  the  season  have  quite  as  much  to  do  with  the 
quality  of  the  queens  produced  as  does,the  so-called  swarming 
impulse  on  the  part  of  Jhe  workers? 

All  these  questions  deserve  careful  experimental  consideration. 
They  may  be  suggested  by  theoretical  reasoning  but  they  cannot 
be  settled  in  anj'  such  way. 

It  is  in  the  process  of  natural  selection,  however,  that  the  en- 
vironment will  aid  us.  No  stock  that  has  had  fair  play  during 
the  summer  and  fails  to  be  ready  to  meet  the  winter,  should  be 
kept  for  breeding.  We  may  feed  and  keep  them  for  other 
purposes,  but  nature  would  have  destroyed  them,  and  we  should 
not  attempt  to  perpetuate  them  either  in  the  male  or  female  line. 

Breediuff  "In  and  In."— When  a  queen  is  fecundated  by  a 
drone  which  is  near  of  kin  to  her  (as  brother  or  cousin),  the 
progeny  is  said  to  be  the  result  of  breeding  "in  and  in," 


18  DJCTIONAKY    OF  J 

Bridal  Trip.-AVedding  flight  (q.  v.). 

Brimstone.  — H.  yulpbur.  The  word  literally  means  burn  stone, 
aud  is  applied  ouly  to  bulphur  iu  the  form  of  solid  masses  like 
stones  or  rolls. 

Brimstone. — v.  To  expose  to  the  fumes  produced  by  burning 
sulphur.  See  8nlphur.  When  used  in  connection  with  bee- 
keeping the  word  signifies  the  destruction  of  a  colony  for  the 
sake  of  obtaining  their  wax  aud  honey. 

Broad  Frame.— See  Wide  Frame. 

Brood. — Young  bees  while  iu  the  various  stages  between  the 
egg  and  the  bee  which  has  emerged  from  the  cell.  The  use  of 
the  word  brood  in  this  connection  is  very  old.  Skeat  tells  us 
that  in  ^Ifric's  Homilies  (A.D.  975)  speaking  of  bees,  the 
writer  says:  "Of  tham  hunige  hi  bredath  heord  brod" — i.e., 
with  the  honey  they  nourish  their  brood. 

Brooding  Bees. — The  nurse  bees  (q.  v.)  are  so  called  by  some 
European  writers. 

Brood-Cluster. — The  cluster  of  bees  which  cover  the  brood- 
nest. 

Brood  Comb. — Combs  cotdaining  brood.  The  term  does  not 
apply  to  empty  worker  or  drone  comb  which  m'ujht  contain 
brood  but  does  not.  Such  comb  is  called  either  icwker  comb  or 
drone  comb  according  as  the  case  may  be. 

Brood-Drones. — Drones  in  the  brood  state.     See  3j(j. 

Brood  Frame.— A  frame  of  the  right  width  to  receive  brood- 
comb. 

Brood-Nest. — That  space  in  the  hive  which  is  occupied  ty  the 
queen  for  laying.  In  fall,  winter,  and  early  spring,  this  space  is 
confined  to  a  small  portion  of  the  centre  of  the  hive,  and  includes 
the  centre  space  on  two  or  more  combs,  but  in  warm  weather  the 
queen  sometimes  lays  in  combs  at  some  distance  from  the  brood- 
nest,  and  even  in  the  boxes  arranged  for  comb  honey.  But 
there  is  always  a  spot  where  the  rearing  of  young  is  specially 
carried  on,  and  this  is  the  brood-nest. 

Brood-rearing  I  „,,  .  ,       ,     ^      „  .  . 

„        ...        c  The  raising  of  brood.     See  naismn. 
Brood-raismg  '  "^  •' 

Brood -Workers.  —Worker  bees  in   the  condition  of  brood. 

See  Efj. 

Brown  Bee.  'I'he  common  honey  bee;  the  kind  usually  kept 
in  box  hives.     Called  also  Black  Bee  and  Oerman  Bee.     See  Race. 

Blicliwheat  Swarm. — A  late  swarm  produced  by  the  stimulus 
caused  by  the  groat  flow  of  honey  obtained  from  buckwheat. 

Bunt. — This  term  properly  signifies  .smut  or  the  fungus  (Uredo 
foetida)  which  produce  disease  m  grain,  but  it  is  also  used  AS  f), 
aa,me  for  the  puff-ball  (t^.  y,), 


PRACTICAL    APICrLTTRE.  19 

Cage,  Queen.     See  Queen  Cage. 

Candy. — n.  This  favorite  material  for  feeding  bees  is  prepared 
by  boiliug  sugar  syrup  until  it  is  sufficiently  condensed.  There 
are  three  forms  depending  upon  the  method  of  preparation. 

1.  Sugar  candy,  so  called.  This  is  sugar  crystallized  by  leaving 
the  saturated  syrup  in  a  warm  place  (90°  to  100°  Fahr. ),  the 
shooting  of  the  crystals  being  promoted  by  placing  sticks,  or 
threads,  at  small  distances  from  each  other  in  the  liquor;  it  is 
also  deposited  from  compound  syrups,  and  does  not  seem 
to  retain  much  of  the  foreign  substances  with  which  they  are 
loaded.  Brown  sugar  candj'  is  prepared  in  this  way  from  raw 
sugar;  white  sugar,  from  refined  sugar;  and  red  sugar,  Irom  a 
syrup  of  refined  sugar  which  has  been  colored  red  by  means  of 
some  coloring  matter  of  which  cochineal  is  to  be  ])referred. 

2.  Boiled  candy  or  barle\'-siigar  (q.  v.).  This  is  pre{>ared  by 
boiling  the  syrup,  the  several  stages  of  the  process  being  as  fol- 
lows: Well  clarified  and  perfectly  transparent  syrup  is  boiled 
until  a  "  skimmer  "  dipped  into  it,  and  a  portion  "toxiched  "  be- 
tween the  forefinger  and  thumb,  on  opening  them,  is  drawn  into 
a  small  thread,  which  crystallizes  and  breaks.  This  is  called  a 
"weak  candy  height."  If  boiled  again,  it  will  draw  into  a  larger 
string,  and  if  bladders  may  be  blown  through  the  "drippings" 
from  the  ladle,  with  the  mouth,  it  has  acquired  the  second  de- 
gree, and  is  now  called  "  bloom  sugar."  After  still  further  boil- 
ing, it  arrives  at  the  state  called  "  leathered  sugar."  To  determine 
this  re-dip  the  skimmer,  and  shake  it  over  the  pan,  then  give  it 
a  sudden  flirt  behind,  and  the  sugar  will  fly  off  like  feathers. 
The  next  degree  is  that  of  "  crnokled  sugar,"  in  which  state  the 
sugar  that  hangs  to  a  stick  dipped  into  it,  and  i>ut  directly  into 
a  pan  of  cold  water,  is  not  dissolved  oft',  but  turns  hard  and 
snaps.  The  last  stage  of  preparing  this  article  reduces  it  to 
what  is  called  "  carmel  sugar,"  proved  by  dipping  a  stick  first 
into  the  sugar,  and  then  into  cold  water,  when,  on  the  moment 
it  touches  the  latter,  it  will,  if  matured,  snap  like  glass.  It  has 
now  arrived  at  a  "full  candy  height."  Care  must  be  taken 
throughout  that  the  fire  is  not  too  fierce,  as,  by  flaming  up 
against  the  sides  of  the  pan,  it  will  Ijurn  and  discolor  the  sugar, 
converting  a  portion  of  it  into  caramel  which  is  said  to  be 
poison  to  bees  in  cold  weather;  hence  the  boiling  is  best  con- 
ducted by  steam  heat. 

Any  flavor  or  color  may  be  given  to  the  cariify  by  adding  the 
coloring  matter  to  the  syrup  before  boiling  it,  or  the  flavoring 
essences  when  the  process  is  nearly  complete. 

For  feeding  bees  the  earlier  stages  are  to  be  preferred  as  con- 
taining more  water  and  as  being  softer  and  more  easily  rasped 
down. 

3.  White  cand}'.  This  is  prepared  by  boiling  a  strong  syrup 
until  it  becomes  solid  on  cooling.  While  still  hot  the  pan  is 
placed  in  snow  or  ice  water  and  constantly  stirred  until  the  en- 
tire contents  consolidate  into  a  white  mass.     Candv  in  this  con- 


20  DICTIONAKY    OB* 

dition  absorbs  a  large  quantity  of  water  and  is  easily  used  b}' 
the  bees.  As  a  winter  food  we  have  found  it  excellent.  It  may 
be  moulded  into  cakes  or  bricks  and  laid  over  the  cluster,  or  it 
may  be  i)acked  in  wired  frames  and  hung  by  the  side  of  the  bees. 

4.  There  is  also  a  preparation  which  is  known  as  "  Good's 
Candy  "  or  "  Sholtz  Candy."  Langstroth,  in  his  Hive  and  Honey 
Bee,  gives  the  following  directions  for  prejjaring  it. 

"Rev.  M.  SchoUz,  of  Lower  Sile.sia  (Europe),  recommends 
the  following  mixture  for  feeding  bees:  "Take  one  pint  of 
honey  and  four  pounds  of  powdered  lump  sugar;*  heat  the 
honey,  without  adding  water,  and  mix  it  with  the  sugar,  working 
them  together  to  a  stiff  doughy  mass.  When  thus  thoroiighly 
incorporated,  cut  it  into  slices,  or  form  it  into  cakes  or  lumps, 
and  wrap  them  in  a  piece  of  coarse  linen  and  place  them  in 
the  frames.  Thin  slices,  enclosed  in  linen,  may  be  pushed 
down  between  the  combs.  The  plasticity  of  the  mass  enables 
the  apiarist  to  apply  the  food  in  any  manner  he  may  desire." 

Candy, — v.  When  honey  or  sugar  crystallize  from  a  solution 
they  are  said  to  candy.  Candied  honej'  is  that  which  has  solid- 
ified. 

Cap. — n.  1.  When  the  cover  of  a  hive  is  made  in  the  form  of  a 
box  it  is  sometimes  called  a  t«y». 

2.  The  cover  of  a  cell — either  brood  or  honey.  Sometimes 
called  ilie  capphvj. 

Cap. — ".  To  cover  a  cell  or  seal  it  over. 

Capped  Brood.—Sealed  brood  (q.  v.). 

Capped  Honey. — Sealed  Honey  (q.  v.). 

Cappiii^S    (  The  caps  of  honey  cells  which  are  removed  when 

Caps  )  ^^^  honey  is  extracted. 

Card. — A  frame  filled  with  honey  comb.  A  sheet  of  honej'- 
comb. 

Cariliulail  Bee.  .V  race  of  bees  found  in  the  mountains  of 
Southwestern  Austria.  The  workers  are  light  grey,  and  are  re- 
markable for  the  gentleness  of  their  dispositions.     See  Race. 

Carrier  Bees.— Workers  that  are  old  enough  to  forage. 

Cases  lor  Sections.  This  term  is  used  indiscriminately  to 
denote  two  distinct  devices:  1.  Wide  frames  filled  with  sections 
and  hung  in  the  hive  like  ordinary  frames. 

2.  Crates  or  boxes  in  which  sections  are  placed  and  held  while 
on  the  hive  while  the  bees  are  tilling  them,  or  packed  for  ship- 
ment. 

Cashiered  Stocks.— Stocks  of  which  the  bees  are  either  de- 
stroyed or  united  with  other  stocks. 

Casts. — This  term  is  usually  and   properly  applied  only   to 


The  sugar  must  be  rediiceii  to  tiery  fine  powder. 


PRACTICAX    AnCtTLTlRK. 


21 


"  secornl,  third,  etc.,  swarms,"  but  some  authors  iise  it  to  denote 
any  swarm. 

Caterpillar. — This  terra  properly  applies  only  to  the  larva  of 
lepidopterous  insects  (moths  and  butterllies).  According  to 
some  etymologists,  it  should  be  applied  only  to  those  larvaj  that 
are  hairy — the  word  being  literally  a  hairy  she-cat  (Old  French — 
chute  ptltuse).  Webster  gives  a  stealer  of  food  {Cater,  food,  and 
piller,  robber). 

Caiieasiau  Bee. — A  race  of  bees  found  amongst  the  Caucasian 
Mountains  and  said  to  be  very  active  and  amiable. 

Cell. — Literally  a  small  house  or  room.  The  compartments  of 
the  honey  comb  in  which  the  bees  store  honey  and  raise  their 
young.  They  are  of  various  sizes  and  forms — round,  penta- 
gonal, hexagonal,  etc.     See  Comb,  Queen  Cell,  etc. 

Cell,  Koyal.     See  Queen  Cell. 

Chaff  Hive.— A  hive  with  double  walls,  the  space  between 
them  being  filled  with  chaff  or  some  porous  material  which  will 
jnevent  the  passage  of  heat,  and  consequently  will  keep  the 
hives  warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  summer. 


SECTIOX   OF    CHAFF    HIVE. 


A  section  of  one  of  the  most  popular  forms — the  "Sim- 
plicity"— is  shown  in  the  accompanying  engraving  where  A,  A, 
are  the  outer  sides;  C  C,  the  inner  walls,  and  B,  B,  chaflf.  H  is 
the  entrance,  and  E,  E,  a  movable  cover.  It  will  be  seen  that 
this  hive  is  a  two-story  hive  by  construction,  though  of  course  it 


22  DICTIONARY    OJ" 

is  iised  as  a  one-story  hive  in  winter — the  upper  story  heiuf* 
filled  with  a  bag  iiiatle  of  any  cheap  stuff  and  packed  with  chaff. 
A  Irame  of  comb  is  shown  in  the  lower  story  with  its  end  facing 
the  entrance  H,  and  three  frames,  I,  are  shown  in  the  upper 
story  and  lying  across  it. 

ChrysaliU  )  Plural,  chrysalides.  A  condition  into  which  the 
Chrysalis  j  caterpillars  of  butterflies  and  moths,  and  the  larvaB 
of  most  other  insects,  pass  before  they  change  into  the  perfect 
insect.  It  corresponds  to  the  terms  anrelia,  nymph  and  pupa. 
At  one  time  it  was  confined  to  the  lepidopterous  insects  (insects 
which  have  wings  covered  with  powdery  scales — butterflies  and 
moths)  but  is  now  applied  to  the  pupaa  of  other  insects.  The 
term  pupa  is,  however,  to  bo  preferred  in  the  case  of  the  bee. 

Clamp. — 1.  A  movable  piece  which  fastens  two  or  more  parts 
of  anytiiing  together.  Thus  we  have  clamps  for  fastening  the 
bottom  board  to  the  hive;  for  securing  the  sides  of  the  hives  to 
each  other  where  they  are  made  movable,  and  for  other  purposes. 

2.  A.  piece  of  wood  or  a  batten  put  across  a  board  to  strengthen 
it.     Claiups  are  often  nailed  to  the  underside  of  bottom  boards. 

3.  A  number  of  stocks  piled  together  and  covered  for  winter 
protection. 

4.  Frames  and  boxes  piled  together  and  properly  arranged  so 
as  to  be  covered  with  an  outer  case. 

Cleansing'  Flight.— See  Ftyjhl,  Cleansmg. 

Closed-End  Frames.     See  Frames,  Vlos&l  end. 

Cluster.  —  v.  Bees  are  said  to  cluster  when  they  form  a  com- 
pact mass,  each  bee  holding  on  to  her  neighbor  by  means  of  the 
hooks  at  the  ends  of  the  feet. 

Cluster.— n.  1.  Any  mass  of  bees  which  bold  together  by 
means  of  their  foot-hooks. 

2.  When  "the  cluster"  is  spoken  of,  reference  is  had  to  the 
compact  mass  into  which  the  bees  of  a  colony  form  themselves 
when  reposing  quietly  in  their  hives  especially  in  winter. 

(!ocoon. — The  silken  case  in  which  the  larva  of  the  bee  or 
other  insect  envelops  itself  when  it  passes  into  the  pupa  slate. 

2.  When  cocoons  are  spoken  off  in  connection  with  the  apiary, 
the  cocoons  of  the  bee-moth  are  generally  meant. 

Collateral  System.— Placing  small  hives  or  boxes  at  the  sides 
of  the  main  hive  or,  as  Nutt  called  it,  the  ravilion. 

Coloni/ing.— A  method  of  dividing  colonies  by  inducing  them 
to  enter  and  fill  a  second  hive  placed  in  communication  Mith  the 
original  one.  Used  only  with  box  hives  and  open  to  very 
serious  objections. 

Colony. —The  bees  of  a  stock.  (See  Stock.)  A  complete  col- 
ony consists  of  queen,  workers,  and  at  certain  seasons,  drones. 
The  test  of  a  perfect  colony  seems  to  be  its  power  of  perpetu- 


PKACXICAL   APICULTUKE.  23 

ating  itself,  aud  for  this  the  queen  and  workers  are  all  that  is 
required.  We  sometimes  speak  of  a  queenless  colony,  and  the 
expression  is  not  incorrect,  but  it  is  equivalent  to  saying  that 
the  colony  is  not  full  or  perfect. 

The  distinction  between  a  colony  and  a  swarm  is  simply  this: 
A  swarm  is  a  nejc  colony  just  sejiarated  from  the  parent  stock. 
See  Swarm. 

Colt, — A.  name  sometimes  given  to  the  second  after-swarm. 
The  third  is  called  &  filly.     See  Filly. 

Comb. — A  number  of  cells  built  together  so  as  to  form  a 
sheet.  Comb  is  always  built  with  cells  on  both  sides,  the 
division  between  the  ends  of  the  cells  being  called  the  septum 
and  serving  as  a  bottom  for  both  series  of  cells,  thus  saviug 
wax.  The  cells  are  not  placed  exactly  opposite  each  other,  but 
the  centres  of  the  bottoms  are  arranged  quiucuux  fashion  (see 
quincunx).  These  bottoms  are  not  flat  but  concave  (as  seen  from 
the  interior  of  the  cells),  being  formed  of  three  rhomboidal 
plates,  consequently  the  cells  are  a  little  deeper  than  just  half 
the  thickness  of  the  sheet  of  comb,  which  for  brood  is  about 
15-16ths  of  an  inch.  Such  comb  weighs  about  \  lb.  to  the  square 
foot,  and  it  is  said  to  require  about  5  lbs.  of  honey  per  square 
foot  to  make  it.  Some  writers,  however,  think  that  the  amount 
of  honey  used  in  making  wax  is  greatly  over-estimated.  As  it 
is  more  than  probable  that  beec  cannot  altogether  control  the 
production  of  wax,  any  moro  than  other  secretions,  it  may  be 
that  tho  wasto  incurred  in  tho  production  of  comb  is  not  quite  as 
great  as  has  been  supposed/  When  filled  and  sealed,  brood 
comb  weighs  about  5  lbs.  per  square  foot,  but  the  cells  may  be 
lengthened  out  so  as  to  hold  a  much  greater  quantity.  Root 
tiixyti  as  much  as  10  lbs.  per  square  foot.  Since  honey  varies  very 
much  in  specific  gravity  (from  1.261  to  1.450.  See  Honey)  even 
when  sealed,  we  must  not  accept  these,  figures  as  correct  in  all 
cases. 


tsaiasmBBBBi 

AVORKER    COMB.  PRONE  COMB. 

Three  kinds  of  comb  are  foiind  in  most  hives  —worker,  drone 
and  store,  each  being  indicated  by  the  cells  of  which  it  is 
formed.  The  cells  of  worker  comb  are  shown  of  actual  size  in 
the  figure.    Five  of  thesQ  cells,  placed  iu  line,  mee^sure  just  oqq 


24  DICTIONAKY    OJF 

inch,  so  that  each  square  inch  contains  25,  and  the  surface  on 
both  sides,  contains  50  cells.  An  ordinary  Langstroth  frame, 
moderately  filled  with  brood  (say  a  space  six  inches  by  eleven) 
will  contain  3,300  young  bees,  and  three  such  frames  will  pro- 
duce about  10,000 — a  number  which  constitutes  quite  a  nice  little 
swarm.  It  is  easily  seen,  therefore,  how  rapidly  weak  stocks 
may  be  built  up  during  warm  weather  by  giving  them  occasion- 
ally a  frame  of  sealed  brood. 

The  cells  of  drone  couib  are  much  larger — four  of  them 
placed  side  by  side  measuring  one  inch  or  16  to  the  square  inch. 

The  depths  of  both  worker  and  drone  cells  are  the  same,  but 
as  the  csips  of  the  worker  cells  are  flat  while  those  of  the  drone 
cells  are  very  considerably  convex,  the  latter  really  has  what  is 
equivalent  to  a  greater  depth. 

In  store  comb — that  is,  comb  for  storing  honey — the  cells  are 
often  irregular  in  size  and  shape.  Honey  is  often  stored  both  iu 
worker  and  drone  cells,  but  the  bees  often  build  comb  in  corners 
and  out  of  the  way  places  and  iise  it  for  storing.  Cells  for 
storing  honey  are  generally  much  deeper  than  brood  cells — 
sometimes  as  much  as  two  inches  deep  and  turned  up  at  the 
ends.     See  also  Honey-comb,  Wax. 

Comb,  Artificial. — All  attempts  hitherto  made  to  construct 
comb  artitically  have  failed.  We  frequently  see  the  article  men- 
tioned iu  the  new.simpers,  but  iu  all  such  cases  the  writer  draws 
on  his  imagination  for  his  facts,  and  a  very  poor  imagination  at 
that.  Thus  we  have  seen  it  stated  dozens  of  times  that  comb 
honey  was  now  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  by  first  making 
comb  of  paraffine,  and  then  filling  it  with  flavored  glucose.  It 
is  needless  to  say  that  as  yet  this  cannot  be  done.  There  is  no 
end  to  the  projects  of  this  kind  which  might  be  suggested. 
Thus  we  might  propose  the  manufacture  of  delicate  india  rubber 
comb,  in  which  the  bees  might  store  honey,  and  then,  instead  of 
passing  it  through  an  expensive  extractor  use  a  common  wringing 
machine  to  squeeze  out  the  honey. 

Shortly  after  the  introduction  of  the  movable  frame,  bee- 
keepers become  deeply  impressed  with  the  importance  of  util- 
izing old  w^ax  in  the  manufacture  of  new  comb,  and  various 
l)lans  for  getting  the  bees  to  work  up  old  wax  were  proposed, 
but  none  have  been  successful  except  what  is  known  as  Foundn- 
iion(({.  v.).  This,  however,  ciinuot  be  called  "artificial  comb," 
simply  because  it  is  not  comb  but  only  foundation. 

That  bees  would  use  artificial  comb  for  all  purposes  was  very 
fully  shown  by  that  most  ingenious  apiarist  the  late  M.  Quinby. 
He  constructed  comb,  with  projjcr  sized  cells,  out  of  very  light 
sheet  metal,  and  coated  it  with  a  very  thin  layer  of  wax.  A  small 
section  of  this  artificial  comb  when  placed  in  the  brood  nest 
was  used  by  the  queen  to  receive  her  eggs,  and  which  hatched 
into  larvae  that  were  duly  nursed  by  the  bees,  and  finally 
iwatured.    As  an  experiment,  this  ■was  a  most  important  step; 


PRACTICAL     APICirLTUEE.  25 

Lilt  thus  far,  a  really  pi'actical  article  of    artidcial  comb   is  a 
tLing  of  tLe  future. 

Comb-Bars. —Bars  or  slats   to  which   comb   is  attached  and 
from  whifh  it  hangs  in  the  bar-hives. 

Comb  Basket. — That  part  of  the  extractor  which  receives  and 
holds  the  comb.  The  term  is  some- 
times used  instead  of  comb  box  or 
comb  carrier,  but  this  application  of 
it  should  be  avoided. 

A  comb    basket  for    small    pieces 
of  comb  is  shown  in  the  engraving. 

Comb    Box. — Another    name    for 

comb  carrier  (q.  v.). 

Comb    Bucket.— A    comb    carrier 
(q.  v.). 

Comb  Carrier.— A  box  made  of 
such  a  size  as  to  hold  one  or  more 
frames  of  comb  so  that  they  may  be 
easily  carried  about.  It  should  have 
a  close-fitting  cover  so  that  the  honey 
shall  be  protected  from  flies  and  robber  bees,  and  the  brood 
frdrn  chilling  drafts.  It  may  be  made  of  tin  or  very  thin  boards  — 
one  important  point  being  to  have  it  quite  tight.  The  engraving 
shows  a  very  neat  and  convenient  article  made  of  tin  by  Root, 
of  Medina,  O. 


COMB    liASKKT    FOR   SMALL 
PIKCES. 


COMB-CAKKIEK. 


For  the   confusion   of  names  in  regard   to   this  article,   see 
introduction. 

Comb  Cutting'. — See  Pruning. 

Comb  Foundation,— See  Foundation,  This  term  was  sometimes 


26  DICTIONARY    OF 

used  by  old  writers  to  signify  a  starter  for  wbicL,  of  course,  they 
used  natural  comb. 

Comb  (iliide. — Any  arrangement  by  wbicli  the  bees  are  in- 
duced to  build  comb  in  the  exact  place  that  it  is  wauled.  The 
best  comb-guide  is  a  strip  of  foundation.  Before  fouiidalion  Wiis 
invented,  small  pieces  of  comb  were  used,  and  the  term  was  also 
applied  to  the  edge  of  the  top  bar  of  the  frame. 

Comb-Holder. — A  device  for  supporting  a  frame  of  comb  after 
it  has  been  reuioved  from  the  hive  and  until  the  bee-keeper  is 
ready  to  return  it.  In  some  cases  the  comb-holder  is  a  separate 
stand,  and  it  is  then  perhaps  more  properly  called  a  comb  stmid 


COMB-UOI.DKli. 

or  comb-horse.  The  engraving  shows  a  very  convenient  form  of 
bolder  which  may  be  hooked  over  the  edge  of  (he  hive  and 
which  will  hold  the  first  frame  of  comb,  so  as  to  give  more  room 
in  the  hive  while  examining  the  others. 

Comb  Honey.— Honey  in  the  comb  as  distinguished  from  ex- 
tracted or  strained  honey. 

Comb  Horse. — See  Conib-Holder. 

Comb  rniiiillg.— See  Prunhig. 

Comb  Roller.  — A  German  device  for  uncapping  when  ex- 
tracting. It  consists  of  a  roller  with  short  wires  projecting 
from  its  entire  surface.  When  i)assed  over  a  comb  it  breaks  Ihe 
caps  of  the  cells  so  that  the  honey  is  easily  thrown  out.  It  is 
not  as  good  as  the  knife. 

Comb  Stand.— See  Comb  Holder. 

Condemned  Bees. —Bees  that  are  to  be  consigned  to  the  brim- 
stone pit. 

Coppet.— A  hackle  (q.  v.). 

Corbicula.— Literally,  a  little  ba.sket.  The  pollen-basket 
found  on  the  legs  of  the  bee. 

Corners.— Metal.  This  term  is  properly  applied  to  pieces  of 
sheet  metal  which  are  fastened  to  the  corners  of  wooden  frames 
for  the  purpose  of  strengthening  them.  The  term  has,  however, 
been  used  to  designate  i)ieces  of  metal  which,  when  apjjlied  to 
the  upper  corners  of  (be  ordinary  hanging  frames,  form  the 
projecting  supports  from  which  the  rest  of  the  frame  bangs. 
Such  so-called  corners  are  shown  at  c  in  the  figure, 


I>ltA.CTICAIi    APICtTLTtlBE. 


27 


A  more  appropriate  name  for  these  would  be  metal  arms. 
Metal  arms  Lave  been  constructed  in  various  ways — of  wire  and 
of  sheet  tin.  The  usual  way  is  to  make  them  of  tin,  and  they 
are  so  formed  that  they  may  be  folded  round  the  corner  of  the 
frame  so  as  to  hold  firmly  and  present  two  thiu  edges  by  which 
they  rest  upon  the  bearers  or  rabbets.  The  advantage  of  metal 
corners  is  that  the  bees  cannot  fasten  the  frames  to  the  rabbets 
with  propolis.  The  frames  are  therefore  easily  set  free  for  ex- 
amination and  do  not  require  to  be  pried  loose.  The  disadvan- 
tages are  that  the  frames  move  about  verj'  easily  when  the  hive 
is  carried.  Some  very  able  bee-keepers  do  not  like  them  on  this 
account. 

Cover  Board.     Honey  board. 

Crate. — A  skeleton  box  for  holding  sections  either  on  the  hive 
or  on  their  way  to  market. 

Cross. — a.  Irritable;  easily  made  angry. 

Cross. — n.  When  two  races  or  breeds  are  bred  together  the 
progeny  is  said  to  be  a  cross.     See  Hybrid. 

Cross-Mated. — A  queen  of  any  breed  which  has  met  a  drone 
of  another  breed  may  be  said  to  be  cross-mated.  This  term  is 
greatly  to  be  preferred  to  the  word  "impurely"  mated,  which 
really  has  no  meaning  whatever. 

Cross  Sticks. — Sticks,  or  spleets  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
which  are  placed  in  box  and  straw  hives  to  support  the  combs. 

Crown  Board.— Honey  board. 

Cry  Back. — It  is  a  curious  fact,  well  known  to  breeders  of  the 
higher  animals,  that  the  effect  of  a  cross  will  frequently  disap- 
pear for  several  generations  and  then  appear  again  in  a  very 
marked  degree.  This  principle  is  knowu  to  phjsicians  as 
Atavlstn  (q.  v.),  and  amongst  breeders  of  stock  such  progeny  is 
said  to  "cry  back," — a  term  derived  from  a  well  known  hunting 
expression.  It  is  therefore  never  safe  to  breed  from  two  cross- 
bred animals.  Crossing  between  pure  bred  animals  is  per- 
missible when  we  intend  to  use  the  cross  itself  or  when  we 
intend  to  bleed  from  it  by  mating  with  a  pure  male  or  female, 
but  not  otherwise. 


28  DicnoNAUx  OF 

Cushion. — A  bag  or  similar  receptacle  filled  with  some  porotis 
material  which  does  not  couduct  heat  freely.  Cushions  are  used 
to  protect  the  bees,  aud  may  be  used  both  on  top,  sides  or  bot- 
tom of  the  frames.  When  used  at  the  sides,  the  form  employed 
is  generally  called  a  division  hoard  (q.  v.). 

Cyprian  Bee. — A  race  of  bees  found  in  the  Island  of  Cyprus. 
The'y  resemble  the  Italians  very  closely.  Prof.  Cook  says  "they 
may  be  distinguished  by  the  bright,  leather-colored  lunule 
which  tips  their  thorax  posteriorly,  and  by  the  fact  that  the 
under  side  of  their  bodies  is  yellow  to  the  tij),  Thej'  are  more 
active  than  are  the  Italians,  and  the  queens  are  more  prolific. 
The  good  qualities  of  the  Italians  seem  all  to  be  exaggerated  in 
the  Cyprian,  except  the  trait  of  amiability.  The  Cyprian  bees 
are  second  only  to  the  Egyptian  in  irritability.  That  they  will 
become  less  cross  with  handling  is  to  be  expected."     See  Bare. 

Dalmatian  Bee. — A  race  of  bees  found  in  Dalmatia.  They 
are  slim,  wasp-like,  and  verj'  black,  the  wings  of  the  abdomen 
being  banded  with  a  light  yellow.     See  Race. 

Dead  Air-Space.— See  Air  Space,  Dead. 

Decoy  Hive. — A  hive  properly  arranged  for  the  reception  of 
bees  and  set  out  in  the  hope  that  a  swarm  will  take  possession 
of  it.  This  device  is  very  old,  but  has  never  been  generaUy  suc- 
cessful, although  occasionally  a  swarm  will  be  secured  by  it.  It 
was  described  by  Markham  in  his  '  Countrie  Farm  "  (1610). 

Deprivation. — Eemoving  honey  from  the  hives. 

Deserting  Colony. — Colonies  frequently  leave  their  hives  in  a 
body  in  fall  or  spring,  when  their  supplies  are  exhausted  or  other 
conditions  are  unfavorable.  Colonies  under  such  circumstances 
have  been  called  "Abnormal  Swarms"  and  "Absconding 
Swarms"  (q.  v.),  but  neither  of  these  terms  is  quite  applicable 
under  the  circumstances.  The  term  Deserting  Colony  expresses 
the  exact  ctmdilion  of  affairs. 

Diarrliopa.  -Generally  called  Dysentery  (q.  v.). 

Dipping  Plate.— A  plate  of  wood  or  metal  which  on  being 
dipped  in  melted  wax  becomes  coated  with  a  thin  layer  or  sheet 
of  this  material.  This  sheet  is  then  peeled  off,  and  after  being 
passed  through  a  proper  mill  or  press  is  known  as  comb  founda- 
tion, or  simply  as  foundation  (contracted  to  f  d  n). 

Distance  (inides  i  pins  or  blocks  attached  to  the  sides  of  the 
Distance  Pins      j  top  bar  of  a  frame  to  aid  in  keeping  it  iu 
position,  and  at  a  proper  distance  from  the  others. 

Dividing. — A  method  of  artificial  swarming  by  dividing  a 
colony. 

Division  Board. — A  board  used  for  dividing  a  hive  so  as  to 
contract  the  sjiace  in  which  the  colony  is  kejit.  They  are  of  two 
kinds:  The  plain  ones  consist  simply  of  a  thin  board;  the  chaff' 


t>RACTICAli    APICULTUHE. 


2d 


cushion  division  board  consists  of  a  frame  about  two  inches 
thick,  the  sides  being  covered  with  very  thin  boards,  and  the 
hollow  being  filled  with  chaff.  The  latter  are  a  most  excellent 
device  for  preventing  the  escape  of  heat  from  the  cluster  in 
winter  and  early  sirring.  Some  writers  think  it  is  "too  much 
machinery,"  but  we  think  the  advantages  greatly  overbalance 
the  very  slight  extra  complication.  A  Chaff  Cushion  Division 
Board  is  shown  in  the  annexed  engraving.  We  believe  this  con- 
trivance is  due  to  A.  I.  Root. 


CHAFF  CUSHION   DIVISION   BOARD. 


Dollar  Queen.— See  Qneen,  Dollar. 

Driviug  Bees.— Bees  may  be  caused  to  leave  their  combs  and 
hive  and  pass  into  an  empty  box  by  continued  rapping  on  the 
side",  of  the  hive.  This  is  often  done  for  the  purpose  of  trans- 
ferring, making  new  swarms,  etc.,  and  is  called  driving. 

Drone. — A  male  bee. 

Drone  Broo'l. — The  common  name  for  brood  which  produces 
drones.     More  pi'operly  termed  brood  drones. 

Drone  Comb. — Comb  with  cells  large  enough  to  contain 
drone  brood. 

Drone  Eg'g'. — An  expression  generally  used  to  denote  those 
eggs  which  produce  drones.     More  properly  termed  egg  drones. 

Drone  Trap. — A  trap  for  catching  drones.  It  generally  con- 
sists of  a  cage  of  some  sort  with  meshes  or  wires  through 
which  the  workers  can  pass  freely,  but  through  which  the  drou»  s 
cannot  pass.  Into  this  cage  the  drones  are  led  by  a  long  or 
crooked  passage  so  that  they  cannot  lind  their  way  back.  The 
workers  fly  off  and  the  drones  are  kept  prisoners. 

The  modern  improvements  in  hives,  and  especially'  the  inven- 
tion of  foundation,  enable  us  to  control  completely  the  produc- 
tion of  drones,  and  it  is  better  to  prevent  their  being  reared 
than  to  waste  honey  in  producing  them. 


30  DICTIONARY    OF 

Sometimes,  however,  the  bees  tear  down  worker  comb  and 
raise  drones.  They  may  then  be  destroyed  while  in  the  brood 
condition.  Sliaviiif*  their  heads  off  is  a  simple  method.  Some- 
times we  wish  to  remove  them  alter  they  have  emerged;  in  that 
case  the  drone  trap  is  of  great  use. 

Drumming.— To  rap  or  beat  the  sides  of  a  hive  for  the  pnr- 
po.se  of  alarming  the  bees  and  causing  them  to  leave  their  comb 
and  hive  and  pass  into  another  receptacle.  See  Driving  Bees  and 
Forcing  Swarms. 

Dummies. — A  term  applied  by  some  English  writers  to 
division  boards.     A  contraction  for  duryimy  frames. 

Duplet.— The  hive  set  over  or  under  another.— A'pj/s. 

Duplicate.— ^To  set  one  hive  over  another. 

Dysentery.— A  disease  in  which  bees  void  large  quaninies  of 
very  soft  lieces.  Cause  and  cure  are  not  yet  fully  understood. 
Even  the  liatnre  of  the  disease  is  unknown.  Some  claim  that 
diarrhoja  is  the  proper  name  for  the  disease,  and  probably  it  is, 
but  the  advances  thus  far  made  in  insect  pathology  do  not  war- 
rant us  in  coming  to  a  decision.  It  may  be,  however,  that  ere 
long  the  pathological  histology  of  the  bee  will  be  so  well 
understood  that  this  point  will  be  fully  decided.  In  the  mean- 
time, there  can  be  no  objection  to  the  use  of  the  old  word. 

Eg'g.— The  first  condition  of  the  bee  after  it  leaves  the 
body  of  the  mother.  When  first  extruded,  and  before  it  has 
been  exposed  to  the  air,  the  egg  has  a  soft  glutinous  surface 
which  enables  it  to  adhere  to  any  object  which  it  may  touch. 
The  queen  places  it  at  the  bottom  of  the  cell  and  it  remains  as 
shown  in  the  figure  which  is  considerably  mag- 

Inified. 
When  a  colony  is  in  good  order  all  the  eggs 
in  the  hive  are  laid  by  the  queen,  but  it  some- 
times happens  that  fertile  workers  (q.  v.)  are 
present,  and  they  too  lay  eggs.  Such  eggs  are 
often,  and  we  think  not  improperly,  called 
worker  eggs.  The  queen  lays  eggs  under 
three  different  conditions,  and  capable  of 
producing  three  different  kinds  of  bees  — 
—  queens,     workers     and    drones.        Such     eggs 

EGG  DEPOSITED     Hie    generally    called   queen  eggs,    lotfrkei-  eggs, 
IN  OKI, I..  and   drone  eggs,    but   it  is    obvious    that     this 

mode  of  expression  is  faulty.  All  eggs 
laid  under  proper  conditions  are  queen  eggs ;  there  are  no  "drone 
eggs,"  for  drones  never  lay  eggs,  and  by  "  worker  eggs"  may  be 
meant  eggs  laid  by  worke'rs.  If,  however,  we  regard  the  word 
egg  in  this  case  as  denoting  the  condition  of  the  bee,  we  may 
be  enabled  to  express  exactly  what  we  want  to  say  without  cir- 
cumlocution or  doubt.  The  terms  egg  queens,  egg  icorkers,  egg 
drOHC.?,  express  the  facts  precisely.     In  the  case  of  eggs   laid  by 


PKACTTCAIi    APJOTTIiTUKE.  31 

workers,  wbich  eggs  always  produce  drones,  "worker  eggs" 
would  be  proper,  and  tbe  expression  "worker  egg  drones" 
would  distinguish  tbem  from  "queen  egg  drones." 

Egg^  Drone. — A  drone  in  tbe  condition  of  an  egg.  An  egg 
wbicli  will  produce  a  drone.  Such  eggs,  when  queen  eggs,  are 
known  by  being  laid  in  drone  cells.  Worker  eggs  (tbat  is,  eggs 
laid  by  workers)  are  laid  in  any  kind  of  cell. 

Egg:  Queen. — This  is  undoubtedly  the  same  as  an  egg  worker. 

Egrg"  Worker. —A  worker  in  the  condition  of  an  egg.  Such 
eggs  are  always  laid  by  queens,  and  are  really  queen  eggs. 

Egyptian  Bee. — This  bee  was  at  one  time  regarded  as  a  dis- 
tinct species  and  v&iueA  apis  fasciata,  bi^t  it  is  now  generally 
thought  to  be  a  mere  variety  or  race  belonging  to  apis  melUfico, 
the  common  honey  bee. 

"The  German  apiarist,  Herr  Vogel,  has  given  special  attention 
to  this  variety,  and  has  discovered  in  it  some  interesting  pecu- 
liarities. It  never  gathers  propolis,  but  uses  wax  in  its  place; 
and  it  seems  proof  against  the  cold.  But  the  most  singular  fact 
tbat  has  come  to  his  knowledge  is,  that  there  exist  regularly  in 
au  Egyptian  colony  some  twelve  or  so  small  drone-laying 
queens,  which  would  be  called  fertile  workers  but  that  they  have 
a  distinctive  appearance,  consisting  in  the  waxen  yellow  of  their 
breasts— a  feature  which  is  possessed  also  by  the  drones  of  their 
progeny. " — Xeighhour. 

Under  these  conditions  it  will  be  interesting  to  study  the 
question  of  hybridity  in  connection  with  this  bee,  and  we  have 
made  arrangements  to  do  so. 

Prof.  Cook  says  of  these  bees:  "They  are  very  yellow,  in- 
tensely cross,  and  frequently  have  fertile  workers.  They  are 
probably  the  bees  that  are  famous  in  history,  as  having  been 
moved  up  and  down  the  Nile  in  rude  boats  or  rafts,  as  the 
varying  periods  of  nectar-secreting  bloom  seemed  to  demand." 

Eke. — An  addition  to  a  hive,  making  it  larger.  This  term  was 
generally  used  in  connection  with  the  old  straw  hives  or  skeps, 
and  bj'  it  was  meant  an  additional  ring  or  hoop,  the  same  diam- 
eter as  the  original  straw  hive,  ])laced  under  the  old  hive.  Neigh- 
bour defines  eke  as  half  a  hive  placed  below  the  main  hive,  while 
a  whole  hive  used  in  the  same  way  is  called  a  "nadir"  (q.  v.). 
We  believe,  however,  that  any  addition  to  the  old  straw  hive 
was  called  an  "  eke,"  which  merely  signifies  an  addition. 

Emerging  Bees     \  Young  bees  just  leaving  the  cells  in  which 
Emerging  Brood  \    they  were   raised.      The    term    hatching 

brootl  is  frequently  but  improperly  applied  to  young  bees  in  this 

condition.     See  Hatch. 

Engraft. — A  queen  cell  is  said  to  be  engrafted  when  it  is 
taken  from  one  comb  and  so  arranged  in  another  that  the  beeg 
fasten  it  properly. 


82  DICTIONARY    OF 

Entrance. — Tne  opeuiug  or  passage  through  which  bees  enter 
anil  leave  the  hive. 

Entrance  Blocks.— Blocks  by  means  of  virhich  the  entrance 
to  a  hive  may  be  regulated  as  to  size  and  position. 

Entrance  (Juard. — A  device  by  means  of  which  queens  and 
drones  are  prevented  from  entering  or  leaving  the  hive  while 
the  workers  have  free  passage.  This  is  accomplished  by  fasten- 
ing in  front  of  the  usual  entrance  a  strip  of  wood  or  metal, 
pierced  with   holes   which   are  just  large  enough   to  admit  a 


JONES'   ENTRANCE  GUARD. 

worker,  but  too  small  to  allow  a  queen  or  drone  to  pass.  A  very 
excellent  form  of  this  device  is  that  shown  in  the  figure  and 
known  as  Jones'  Entrance  Guard.  It  is  made  of  zinc,  the  open- 
ings in  which  do  not  change  by  being  alternately  wet  and  dry. 

Extractor. — A  machine  by  means  of  which  the  honey  is 
thrown  out  of  the  cells  by  centrifugal  force.  The  honey  is  col- 
lected in  suitable  vessels  and  the  combs,  quite  uninjured  are  re- 
turned to  the  hive.  A  very  good  form  of  this  machine  is  shown 
in  the  figure  on  the  opposite  page. 

Extracted  Honey. — Honey  that  has  been  taken  from  the 
codbs  by  means  of  the  extractor.  Prior  to  the  invention  of  the 
extractor,  honey  was  obtained  in  a  liquid  state  by  mashing  the 
comb  and  straining  out  the  honey.  Honey  obtained  in  this  way 
from  combs  taken  from  the  body  of  the  hive  (as  in  the  old  sys- 
tem of  brimstoning)  is  always  contaminated  with  bee-bread,  the 
animal  fluids  of  larvae  and  other  impurities.  It  was  called 
strained  honey  (q.v.),  and  this  term  should  always  be  applied  to  it, 
while  the  term  extracted  honey  should  always  be  used  to  denote 
honey  obtained  by  means  of  the  extractor. 

Farina. — This  word  literally  means  flour,  but  it  has  been  used 
occasionally  by  botanists  to  signify  pollen,  and  consequently 
bee-keepers  have  sometimes  used  it  in  the  same  sense.  But  in 
view  of  the  fact  that  true  flour  is  used  by  bees  as  well  as  true 
pollen,  it  would  be  well  to  avoid  the  use  of  the  word  farina  as  a 
synonym  for  pollen. 

Fecnndate. — To  impregnate.  The  queen  is  fecundated  during 
a  successful  wedding  trip.  The  words  fertile  and  feiiilize  are 
generally  used  where  the  woTds  fecundated  and  fecundate  ought  to 
be  employed.     See  Fertilize, 


t^RACnCAli    APICUIiTXJKEi 


83 


EXTRACTOR. 


Feeder. — A  device  for  holding  bee-food  in  such  a  way  that  the 
bees  can  readily  take  it  without  being  drowned. 

Fertile  "i 

.  i  Tbe  use  of  the  words  fertile,  fertilize  and  fer- 

rertilize  \    tiUzation  as    synonyms   for  fecundated,  fecun- 

Fertilization  )  date  and  fecundation,  is  greatly  to  be  regretted. 
It  is  true  that  the  word  fertiliz(dion  is  used  by  botanists  quite 
generally  to  signify  the  process  by  which  the  pollen  renders  the 
ovule  fertile,  and  there  are  a  few  instances,  outside  of  works  on 
the  bee,  in  which  the  same  word  is  used  to  signify  the  act  of 
fecundating  the  ovum  in  animals,  but  in  the  latter  case  its  use  is 
exceptional  and,  in  the  case  of  the  queen  bee,  improper;  because 
the  word,  if  used  in  this  sense,  has  two  distinct  meanings,  and 
hence  confusion  is  apt  to  arise.  The  word  fertile  means  fruitful, 
and  a  queen  bee  may  be  fruitful  without  having  been  fecundated. 
Indeed,  we  ordinarily  speak  of  fertile  workers,  which  are  never 
fecundated.    It  is  true  that  in  both  these  cases,  drones  only  are 


34  DlCTIOX.\BY    OF 

produced,  but  tliis  does  not  alter  the  case;  it  woiild  still  be  im- 
possilile  to  speak  of  either  the  queeu  or  worker  as  wifruitntl.  If, 
however,  we  relegate  the  words  under  consideration  to  their 
proper  places,  and  give  them  their  most  usual  signitication,  we 
shall  be  able  properly  to  speak  of  a  fedile  and  feoDulated  qiieen 
as  meaning  one  that  is  both  fruitful  and  impregnated.  See 
Fecumlaie.     The  subject  is  also  discussed  in  our  Introduction. 

Filly. — A  fourth  swarm,  the  third  being  called  a  colt{q.  y.). 
A  coltis  a  male  foal;  a  tilly  is  a  female  foal.  In  this  country  the 
term  colt  is  applied  to  the  young  of  the  horse  without  distinction 
of  sex,  but  this  is  an  Americanism  which  ought  to  be  carefully 
avoided  by  all  who  appreciate  accuracy  of  language. 

Fliarht. — An  after  swarm  or  cast. 

Fliffht,  ClPUU'^ing. — When  bees  issue  from  the  hive  to  void 
their  "lances,  alter  a  loug  confinement,  they  are  said  to  take  a 
deUDftingJiigld. 

Flight,  Miirriaare        ^  when  the  queen  makes   an  excursion 

Flia-lit,  Matrimonial  \    from    the  hive    for  the   jiurpose   of 

Flight.  Weddinsf  )  meeting  a  drone,  she  is  said  to  make 
a  marriage  tlight.  ^Suoh  a  flight  is  said  to  be  successful  or  unsuc- 
ce.-isfal  according  to  obvious  circumstances. 

Floor  Board.— The  bottom  board  (q.  v.). 

Flour. — See  Meal. 

Forage. — Bee-food  obtained  from  natural  sources. 

Force. — To  drive.     See  Driving  Bees. 

Forcing  Box.  A  box  which  is  made  to  fit  exactly  over  a  hive 
so  that  the  bees  may  be  driven  into  it  by  the  process  of  drum- 
ming (q.  v.).  In  this  way  artificial  swarms  are  forced,  and  the 
bees  are  sometimes  removed  from  the  hive  previous  to  the  pro- 
cess of  transferring. 

Foul  Brood.— The  name  of  a  disease  which  is  undoubtedly 
the  most  dangerous  to  which  bees  are  subject.  But  little  is 
really  ku own  regarding  it  with  any  degree  of  certainty.  It  is 
now  generally  thought  to  be  due  to  the  growth  of  a  microscopic 
fungus,  though  this  is  by  no  meaTis  certain.  It  affects  the  brood 
but  not  the  old  bees,  and  generally  gives  evidence  of  its  presence 
by  its  horrible  odor. 

Foundation.— Sometimes  contracted  to /"(?  ?!.  This  term  was 
used  by  Iluish  and  the  older  writers  to  signify  guide  comb,  used 
to  induce  the  bees  to  build  comb  on  the  slats  or  bars  of  the 
bar-hive.  It  is  now  applied  exclusively  to  sheets  of  wax  so 
stamped  as  to  form  an  artificial  beginning  for  comb-building.  By 
many  it  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  three  great  inventions  which 
have  entirely  revolutionized  bee-keeping,  while  others,  who 
bv    no   means    stand  low  down   in    the   ranks   of  bee-keepers, 


PRACTICAL,     APICrLTCBE. 


35 


think  that  the  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  the  use  of  foundation  are  greatly 
overestimated. 

One  of    the   great  objections  to  the 
use  of  foundation   is  its   tendency  to 
sag  and  thus  distort  the  cells,  which 
in  this    way  are   made  longer  in  one 
direction  than  in   another.       This   is 
very    well    shown    in  the    engraving, 
where   it  v^ill  be   seen    that  the  cells 
are  much   larger  from  to^)  to  bottom 
than  from  side  to    side.     To  prevent 
this   various    devices  have   been    em- 
EU.NciATKi)  CELLS  CArsED    pjoypd— the  most  efficient  being  either 
^^^'^^i^Q^u!!:;!-   lo  wire  the  frames  (see  ^ra...    Wire,) 
^  or  to  insert   tine  wires  in  the  founda 

tion  itself. 
Frame. —When  the  word  frame  is  used  by  bee-keepers,  with- 
out any  qnaliticatiou,  it  signifies  the  movable  frame  in  which 
comb  is  fastened  or  built.  Frames  are  usually  made  of  three 
light  strips  of  wood  which,  with  a  stronger  one  called  the  top- 
bar,  form  a  rectangle.     The  parts  of  the  frame  are  as  follows: 


T 

^ 

i 

C 

D 

z 

2JI 


0IFPEKE>T  FARTS  OF  THE   FRAME. 


Top-bar     shown  at  T  in  the  engraving. 

End-bars         "      "  E     " 

Bottom  "      "  B     " 

Arms  "      "  A     "  " 

Comb  guide    "      "  C      "  " 

The  arms  are  the  projecting  portions  of  the  top-bar  which  rest 
upon  the  rabbets  or  bearers.  The  comb-guide  is  that  portion  of 
the  top-bar  which  projects  downwards  at  C,  and  serves  not  only 


36 


DICTION.UiY    OF 


to  strengthen  the  top-bar,  but  to  secure  the  sheet  of  foundation. 
Before  foundation  was  introduced,  bee-keepers  relied  upon  this 
depending  part  of  the  top  bar  to  guide  the  bees  in  making 
straight  comb.     Hence  the  term  "  comb-guide." 

There  are   several   very  different   sizes  of  frames   in  use,  the 
following  being  the  dimensions  of  those  most  used: 

OUTSIDE    DIMENSIONS   OF    THE    PRINCIPAL   FRAMES   IN    USE. 

Note. — These   are    the   outside   dimensions  in  inches  of  the 
rectangular  part;  the  arms  project  at  each  end  |  of  an  inch. 

Length.  Depth. 

Adair 13|  11 J 

American 12  12 

Gallup n\  U\ 

Langstroth 17f  oj 

Quinby 18|  ll| 

Quinby  frames  with  closed  ends. .   19|  11 

Simplicity 17|  9| 

Standard  of  the  British  Association  of  Bee-Keepers,  14  inches 
long  by  8^  deep. 
Framej  Brood. — A  frame  filled  with  brood  comb. 
Frame,  Broad. — A  wide   frame  for   holding  sections.     It   is 
hung  in  the  hive  like  any  other  frame,  but  the  com!)  being  built 
in  sections  is  easily  removed.  A  better  term  is  Wide  Frame  (q.  v.) 
Frame  Cover. — The  mat  or  thin  sheet  used  for  covering  the 
tops  of  the  frames   for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  bees   down. 
It  is  generally  made  of  enamel  cloth  or  duck.     Sometimes  im- 
I)roperly  called  a  quilt  (q.  v.).     A  mat  (q.  v.)  is  sometimes  used 
instead  of  a  cloth  cover. 

Frame,  Hail^in^. — A  frame   made  to   Jiaiig  in  the  hive  from 
rabbets  or  bearers.     See  Frame,  Staiidivg. 

Frame  Holder. — A  stand  for  holding  frames  while  the  bee- 
keeper is  at  work. 

Frame,  L. — The  Langstroth  frame. 
Frame  Stand. — Same  as  Frame  Holder  (q.  v.). 
Frame,  Standing. — A  frame  which  stands  upon   the  bottom 
bar  instead  of  hanging  from  arms  resting  on  rabbets  or  bearers. 

Frame,  Wired. — A  frame  in  which  vertical  and  diagonal  wires 
are  placed  so  as  to  prevent  either  the  bottom  bar  or  any  comb  or 
foundation  that  may  be  in  the  frame 
from  sagging. 

Wired  frames  frequently  have  a 
stout  tin  bar  placed  vertically  in  the 
center  as  shown  in  the  figure.  This 
we  dislike  on  two  grounds:  1.  We 
object  to  any  metal  in  the  hive  except 
the  very  finest  wire.  Metal  is  too 
good  ft  conductor  of  heat,  and  cf\i»iesi 


WJKKl)  I'UAMK, 


PRACTICAL,   APICTTLTURE.  37 

away  the  heat  from  the  cluster  too  rapidly.  2.  Anything  that 
takes  up  perinaneully  a  large  space  in  the  centre  of  the  combs 
is  objectionable. 

We  place  a  stifif  wooden  rod  between  the  top  bar  and  the  bot- 
tom bar  when  the  frame  is  wired,  and  as  soon  as  the  bees  have 
built  out  the  comb  this  rod  is  removed  and  its  jjlace  is  soou 
tilled  with  comb. 

Frog-Cheese. — The  puff  ball.  A  large  fungus  used  for  smok- 
ing bees. 

Fume-Box. — "The  box  kept  for  the  purpose  of  fuming." — 
Keys.  Bees  were  "fumed"  or  "fumigated"  by  exposing  them 
to  the  smoke  of  the  puff-ball  (q.  v.)  which  stuperted  them  to  such 
an  extent  that  they  fell  from  the  combs. 

Fume  1       To  expose   to  stupefying  fumes.     The  word  is 

Fuuiigntc  )  '  never  used  in  reference  to  destructive  fumes 
like  those  of  sulphur. 

Fuzz-Ball.— The  puff-ball  (q.  v.). 

(irermau  Bee. — The  common  honey-bee;  the  kind  usually  kept 
in  box  hives.     Called  also  Black  Bee  and  Brown  Bee.     Ste  Bace. 
Glassing. — Putting  glass  in  sections  or  honey  boxes. 

Glucose. — This  word  means  sweet,  and  has  no  relation  to  the 
'jlney  or  sticky  qualities  of  the  substance,  as  some  writers  on  bee- 
keeping seem  to  think.  It  is  a  variety  of  sugar,  and  its  chemical 
relations  will  be  found  in  this  work  s.  v.  Sugar. 

Glucose  is  a  natural  constituent  of  the  juice,  and  especially  of 
the  nectar  of  many  plants,  and  as  such,  it  is  present  in  all 
honey.  It  is  consequently  exceedingly  difficult  to  detect  it  when 
it  is  used  as  an  adultei-ant  of  this  article. 

Glucose,  Artiflcial.— Artificial  glucose  is  made  from  starch, 
the  process  being  to  change  the  chemical  constitution  of 
the  starch  by  means  of  acids,  and  then  remove  the  acids 
by  means  of  lime.  When  moderately  well  made  it  contains 
no  starch,  as  many  bee-keepers  seem  to  think,  and  no 
dextrine — and  these  two  impurities  are  easily  detected,  as  are 
also  the  sulphuric  acid  and  calcic  sulphate  (plaster  of  paris), 
which  are  present  in  verj'  rudely  prepared  specimens.  Glucose 
can  also  be  prepared  from  rags  and  from  saw-dust;  but  when 
the  latter  material  is  used  the  product  is  so  difficult  to  purify 
that  it  is  fit  only  for  the  manufacture  of  the  coarser  kinds  of 
alcohol  used  for  varnishes,  etc. 

In  commerce,  however,  glucose  is  a  name  appropriated  to  a 
strong  solution  of  grape  sugar,  in  which  the  conversion  of  the 
starch  is  not  carried  quite  to  completion,  and  consequently 
some  specimens  contain  a  large  proportion  of  dextrine. 
The  term  grape  srigar  is  applied  to  the  same  compound, 
further  converted,  and  reduced  to  a  solid  condition.  Of 
the  nature  and  characteristics  of  glucose  most  writers  on  bee- 


38  DICTIONARY    OF 

culture  have  a  very  confnsecl  idea.  The  editor  of  one  of  our 
promiiieut  bee-journals  told  bis  readers  recently  that  it  was  "a 
liquid  and  always  a  liquid."  This  is  a  uiistake,  as  every  chem- 
ist knows,  and  we  understand  that  some  western  manufacturers 
are  now  producing  crystallized  glucose  which,  in  appeaiance,  is 
almost  equal  to  granulated  cane  sugar. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  give  any  tests  for  impurities  in  artificial 
glucose,  as  bee-keepers  have  no  use  for  the  article.  It  is  never 
adulterated;  as  soon  might  one  carry  coals  to  Newcastle,  or  sin  to 
the  lower  regions,  as  to  think  of  adulterating  ghicose,  which  is 
itself  the  impersonation  of  adulteration,  and  is  never  used 
for  any  other  purpose  uuless,  indeed,  it  be  the  manufacture  of 
alcohol. 

In  view  of  the  immense  frauds  to  which  the  niannfacture  of 
glucose  gives  rise,  its  production  and  sale  should  be  strictly  re- 
gulated by  law,  if  not  altogether  prohibited.  It  has  lately 
received  the  endorsement  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences, 
but  then  we  all  know  what  the  endorsement  of  the  scientific  men 
of  this  country  is  worth;  a  glance  at  the  advertisements  of  the 
manufacturers  of  patent  articles  will  give  us  all  the  information 
we  need  on  that  point.  Pure  glucose  may  be  harmless  from  a 
physiological  point  of  view — that  is  to  say,  it  may  not  be  an 
actual  poison — but  we  must  remeuiber  that  it  is  never  sold  at 
retail  under  its  own  name.  It  cannot  be  found  in  open  market, 
offered  to  the  consumer  direct.  It  is  used  by  the  confectioner, 
the  syrup  manufacturer,  the  manufacturing  grocer,  and  others, 
to  adulterate  their  goods,  and  in  every  case  it  is  sold  for  what  it 
is  not— that  is,  for  pure  cane  sugar,  while  it  is  well  kuowu  that 
its  actiial  value,  as  judged  by  its  sweetening  power,  is  oidj'  one- 
third  that  of  sugar.  It  is,  therefore,  a  fraud,  which  tells  most 
heavily  against  the  poorer  classes,  and  yet,  to  the  extension  of 
this  fraud,  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  lends  the  sanction 
of  its  name!  Attempts  have  often  been  made  by  bee-keei>ers  to 
employ  glucose  (both  liquid  and  solid)  as  a  food  for  bees.  Some 
have  reported  fair  success;  others  declare  that  it  is  very  injurious. 
Many  years  ago  (1S.59)  the  author  was  impressed  with  the  idea 
that  since  glucose  or  grape  sugar  is  a  prominent  constituent  of 
honey,  it  ought  to  form  a  good  food  for  bees.  He  therefore  pre- 
pared some  from  potato  starcli  and  fed  it  to  a  small  colony  with 
success;  but  when  made  on  the  small  scale,  it  was  altogether  too 
expensive  to  compete  with  common  sugar.  But,  since  glucose 
has  become  an  article  of  commerce,  the  price  is  greatly  reduced. 
Under  these  conditions  we  have  tried  it  again,  both  in  the  pure 
state  and  when  mixed  with  cane  sugar,  but  we  must  confess  that, 
thus  far,  we  have  found  no  economy  in  its  use.  We  found  that 
(lolonies  fed  on  it  were  especially  deficient  in  comb-building 
power,  and  our  experiments  were  on  a  considerable  scale.  We 
used  hundreds  of  pounds  of  glucose  carefully  tested  for  purity. 

Bee-keepers  should  never  allow  it  to  enter  their  apiaries  under 
any  shai)e  whatever.     It  will  be  very  difficult   to  keep  it  out  of 


PEACTlCAli    APICULTDKE.  39 

the  surplus  boxes,  and  theu  the  bee-keeper  lays  himself  oi^en  to 
a  charge  of  the  worst  kiud  of  adulteration. 

(xOOd  Caudy.     See  Candy. 

Goiig'cd  Honey.— Honey  wbich  has  been  "gouged"  out  of 
the  tojj  of  a  "  bee  gum  "  after  taking  off  the  cover. 

(xrtiiiiilated  Honey. — See  Honey,  Granulated. 

(irape  Sugar. — Known  also  as  potato  sugar,  rag  sugar,  glucose, 
etc. 

For  its  chemical  relations  see  Sugar. 

In  commerce  the  term  grape  sugar  is  applied  to  the  solid  pro- 
duct obtained  by  slow  evaporation  from  the  solution.  When  in 
the  state  of  a  thick  syrup  it  is  known  as  glucose.  See  Glucose 
and  Sugar. 

iil'iiy  Bees. — There  seems  to  be  a  special  strain  of  bees  known 
throughout  the  South  by  this  name. 

Green  Honey.— See  lIo)iey,  Green. 

tilrub. — See  Larva. 

Onide  Comb.  — See  Cbmh,  Guide. 

Gnni. — See  Bee- Gum. 

diun, — This  term  is  sometimes,  thoiigh  very  improperlj',  ap- 
plied to  propolis,  which  is  a  true  resin.  In  the  "Dictionary  of 
Chemistrj',"  by  Watts,  one  of  the  highest  authorities  in  this  de- 
partment of  science,  gum  is  defined  as  "a  vegetable  substance 
which  forms  a  thick  glutinous  liquid  with  water,  is  insoluble  in 
alcohol,  and  is  converted  by  nitric  acid  into  oxalic  and  mucic 
acids."     None  of  these  properties  characterize  propolis. 

Hackle. — The  straw  covering  M'hich  used  to  be  set  over  the 
conical  "  skeps  "  to  protect  them  in  winter.     Called  also  a  coppet. 

Hatch. — "To  i^roduce  from  eggs  by  incubation." — Websltr. 
To  issue  from  the  egg.  The  word  hatch,  through  all  its  different 
meanings,  carries  the  original  idea  of  production  from  the  egg, 
and  any  other  meaning  is  only  by  way  of  analogy,  as  "to  hatch 
a  plot,"  etc.  It  should  therefore  be  confined  to  this  meaning;  if 
we  use  it,  as  is  commonly  done,  to  express  the  issuing  of  the 
matured  bees  from  the  cells,  we  give  it  two  meanings  and  intro- 
duce confusion.  The  term,  hatching  brood,  therefore,  should  be 
used  to  signify  the  very  young  larvse  just  issuing  from  the  egg; 
when  we  wish  to  signify  brood  that  has  matured  and  is  issuing 
from  the  cell,  the  term  emerging  hrood  (q.  v.)  should  be  usetl. 
Our  readers  must  bear  in  mind,  however,  that  almost  all  writers 
fall  into  this  mistake;  and  by  "  hatching  "  brood,  mean  brood 
that  is  just  emerging  from  the  cell. 

Hatchin§r  Brood  l  a  term  which  is  properly  applied  only  to 
Hatching'  Eggs    \    larvje  which  are  just  issuing  from  the  eggi 
eggs  which   are  just   hatching.     Often   improperly  applied    to 
brood  that  is  just  emerging  from  the  cells.     See  Hatch. 


40  tolCTlONABY    OP 

Heath  Bee. — A  race  of  bees  which  takes  its  name  from  the 
district  kuowu  as  Luneberg  Heath.  In  form  and  appearance 
they  are  similar  to  the  German  Bee,  but  are  very  inferior  for 
practical  purposes,  as  they  build  drone  comb,  and  produce  large 
numbers  of  drones,  even  with  a  young  queen,  and  keep  con- 
stantly swarming. 

Hexagon. — A  figure  having  six  sides  all  equal  and  six  angles 
also  equal  to  each  other,  as  shown  in 
the  figure. 

The   hexagon  has   the    remarkable 
property   that  the   distance  from   the 
Q  \         centre   to   any  of  the  angles  is  pre- 

cisely equal  to  one  of  the  sides. 
Hence,  it  can  be  inscribed  in  a  circle 
by  laying  off  the  radius  of  the  circle 
(the  distance  from  the  centre  to  the 
circumference)  along  its  circumfer- 
HEXAOUN.  ence. 

Hexagoiml.— Six  sided.  Most  of  the  cells  of  which  honey- 
comb is  composed  are  hexagonal.  The  term  hexagonal  has  been 
improperly  applied  to  what  is  known  as  the  qu'mcmvx  arrange- 
ment (q.  v.). 

Hill's  Device. — A  contrivance  by  means  of  which  the  bees  are 
enabled  to  pass  over  the  combs,  from  one  to  the  other,  during 
very  cold  weather.  It  is  a  substitute  for  winter  passages  (q.  v.), 
but  in  our  opinion  is  not  equal  to  them.  It  has  the  advantage 
of  not  disfiguring  the  combs,  as  the  winter  passages  are  said  to 
do,  though  not  to  our  eyes.  As  well  speak  of  the  combs  as  dis- 
figtiring   the  frames.     Hill's   device    consists   of   a  number  of 


Illl.l.S    OKVICK. 

curved  strips  of  wood  nailed  to  a  cross-piece  as  shown  in  the 
figure.  When  laid  on  the  top  of  the  frames  it  keeps  the  cover 
or  quilt  up  so  as  to  allow  the  bees  to  pass  under  it.  The  cross 
piece  is  often  made  of  iron,  a  groat  mistake,  since  metal  is  too 
good  a  conductor  of  heat.     Wood  would  be  much  better. 

Hive. — n.  A  box  or  basket  in  which  bees  are  kept.  In  the  old- 
fasliioned  system  of  bee-keejiing  the  hive  consisted  of  a  box, 
basket,  or  hollow  log,  in  which  the  bees  lived,  and  to  the  sides 


PBACTICAIi    APICUliTUBE.  41 

of  which  they  attached  their  combs;  where  movable  frames  are 
used,  the  hive  includes  only  the  outer  shell  and  its  appur- 
tenances. 

The  old  sense  of  hive  is  house.  Some  Germans  still  call  a 
bee-hive  a  bee-house.  In  practical  apiculture  the  word  is  never  used 
as  synonymous  with  *'  swarm  "  or  "  colony,"  though  it  is  some- 
times so  used  in  poetry. 

Hive. — V.  To  cause  a  swarm  of  bees  to  enter  a  hive. 

Hive,  Leaf. — A  hive  invented  by  Huber,  in  which  the  frames 
are  hinged  together  end  to  end. 

Hiver. — One  who  hives  bees. 

Hiviug. — The  process  of  removing  a  swarm  of  bees  from  the 
place  where  they  have  clustered  to  a  hive. 

Hiving  Basket  i  a  basket  or  box  used  for  hiving  bees.     It  is 
Hiving^  Box        j    used  to  receive  the  bees  from   the   cluster 
and  carry  them  to  the  hive. 

Holylaiid  Bee. — This  name  has  been  given  to  the  bees  found 
in  Mount  Lebanon,  Mount  of  Olives,  Mount  Hermon,  the  Valley 
of  Sharon,  Bethlehem,  the  Hills  of  Judea,  Jerusalem,  Jordan, 
Ammon,  East  of  Jordan,  near  the  desert,  Galilee,  Damascus,  and 
various  other  places  in  that  region.  Mr.  13enton,  however, 
claims  that  there  are,  in  the  countries  named,  two  distinct  kinds 
of  bees  possessing  very  different  characteristics.  These  he  calls 
the  Syrian  Bee  and  the  Palestine  Bee.  They  will  be  found  de- 
scribed under  these  heads. 

Honey. — The  nectar  of  flowers  gathered  and  stored  by  the 
bees.  This  and  this  alone  is  true  honey.  That  the  bees  do 
effect  a  change  in  the  nectar  is  undoubtedly  true.  Pure  cane 
sugar  syrui)  when  fed  to  bees  and  stored  in  comb  is  no  lunger 
cane  sugar,  though  neither  can  it  be  called  honey.  So,  too,  bees 
often  gather  the  juice  of  fruit,  honey-dew,  molasses  from  grocer's 
hogsheads,  and  other  stufif,  and  store  it  in  their  cells,  but  none 
of  this  is  honey,  even  though  it  has  passed  through  the  honey- 
sac  of  the  bee.*  ' 

As  might  be  expected,  honey  varies  greatly  in  its  composition — 
different  varieties  being  secreted  by  different  plants.  The  com- 
position also  varies  with  the  age  of  the  honey,  as  a  portion  of 
the  cane-sugar  is  gradually  converted  into  inverted  sugar  by  the 
action  of  a  ferment  contained  in  the  honey.  Whether  this  fer- 
ment is  of  animal  or  vegetable  origin   is  not  yet  fully  settled. 

*  If  the  reader  wishes  to  see  how  far  astray  our  so-called  standard  dictionaries  are 
in  their  definitions,  let  him  mrn  to  the  words  "Honey"and  "I'ropohs."  He  will 
be  reminded  of  the  famous  definition  of  "crab  "  propounded  t  Cuvlcr  by  tliemembeis 
of  the  French  Academy,  when  they  were  gettmg  up  their  celebrated  dictionary. 
They  thought  that  they  had  achieved  something  wonderful  when  tliey  had  defined 
"crab"  thus:  "A  red  fish  that  walks  backwards."  Cuvier  complimented  them 
highly  upon  tlieir  ingenuity,  and  said  the  definition  would  be  perfect  if  it  were  not 
for  three  slight  defects:  In  the  first  place,  a  crab  is  not  a  fish;  secondly,  it  is  not 
red;  and  thirdly,  it  does  not  walk  bctckwards. 


42  DlCTlONABY    OF 

Houie  Lolil  that  the  ieimeut  is  Kiinihir  to  tliiit  fouud  ia  the  juice 
of  most  fruits;  others  think  that  it  originates  in  the  alinieuuiry 
canal  of  the  bee  itself.  Those  who  claim  a  vegetable  origin  for 
it,  suggest  that  the  bees  try  to  prevent  fermentation  by  the  ad- 
dition of  au  acid  (formic  acid?)  and  by  sealing  up  the  cells. 

Honey  contains  four  different  kinds  of  sugar:  1,  cane-sugar; 
2,  fririt  sugar  or  glucose;  3,  inverted  sugar  (so-called  because  it 
turns  the  i)lane  of  polarization  to  the  left  or  inverts  the  action  of 
the  fruit  sugar;  4,  a  sugar  of  which  but  littk  is  known,  but  which 
is  evidently  distinct.  Under  the  action  of  the  peculiar  ferment 
previously  mentioned,  and  which  is  generally  present,  the  cane 
sugar  gradiaally  changes  to  sugar  of  the  second  and  third  kinds, 
and  as  these  are  less  soluble  than  cane  sugar,  the  clear,  linjpid 
fluid  gradually  becomes  opaque  and  granular — in  other  words, 
the  honey  is  said  to  granulate. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen  that  there  may  be  some  jjure  honey 
which  will  not  granulate,  and  also,  that  it  would  not  be  so  very 
difficult  to  produce  an  imitation  or  fraudulent  honey  which 
would  granulate.  Therefore,  the  greatest  safeguard  which  the 
consumer  has  against  adulteration  lies  in  the  rejiutation  of  the 
l>roducer. 

The  specific  gravity  of  honey  varies  as  widely  as  its  chemical 
composition.  We  have  seen  the  bees  gather  a  liquid  which  was 
little  more  than  sweetened  water,  and  we  have  seen  the  contents 
of  the  cells  so  dense  that  they  solidified  l)efore  the  cells  were 
sealed.  The  differences  in  the  following  data  are,  no  doubt,  due 
to  this  cause. 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY    OF    HONEY. 
Aiitliority.  Si)ec.  Gravity.  Weight  of  :i  G.illon 

Paris  Codex 1  •2(il  10-515  lbs. 

Duncan 1-333  11115     " 

Various  works  on  Natural  Phil- 
osophy      1-450  1209 

Our  own  determination  of  clover 
honey  extracted  after  being 
sealed 1-370  11-507     " 

The  gallon  is  the  standard  U.  S.  gallon  of  231  cubic  inches, 
holding  8-339  lbs.  of  pure  water. 

A  cubic  inch  of  water  weighs  -0301  lbs;  this  multiplied  by  the 
specific  gravity  f)f  any  sample  of  honey,  will  give  the  weiglit  of 
a  cubic  inch  of  that  honey.  Thus  -0361  multiplied  by  1-370 
gives  -04945  lbs.  as  the  weight  of  a  cubic  inch  of  clover  honey. 
This  is  at  the  rate  of  rather  less  than  21  cubic  inches  to  the 
pound. 

A  syrup  of  the  same  specific  gravity  as  average  honey  (1-350) 
may  be  prepared  by  dissolving  7  lbs.  of  cane  sugar  in  3  lbs.  of 
water.     See  Siujur. 

Honey  is  adulterated  ordinarily  by  mixing  it  with  glucose  or 
syrup  of  cheap  cane  sugar,  and  adding  some  flavoring   extract. 


PBAGXICAIi    APICUIjTUKE.  43 

Since  glucose  has  become  so  abundant  and  so  cheap,  has 
driven  all  other  adulterants  out  of  the  tield,  and  as  it  is  some- 
what difficult  to  detect  except  l)y  experienced  chemists  or  honey 
producers,  it  is  very  largely  lased.  Hassal  names  starch,  chalk, 
plaster  of  Paris,  and  pipe  clay,  as  chief  adulterants,  added  for 
tbe  jiurpose  of  giving  a  lighter  color  to  very  dark  honey.  These 
are  easily  detected  by  simply  dissolving  the  honey  in  hot  water 
and  collecting  the  sediment.  Pure  honey  contains  scarcely  any 
sediment.  The  starch,  if  unboiled,  will  fall  down  with  the  other 
impurities.  If  rendered  soluble  by  boiling,  it  can  still  be  de- 
tected bj'  the  blue  color  produced  on  the  addition  of  iodine. 

Blyth,  in  his  "Dictionary  of  Hj'giene,"  names,  in  addition  to 
starch,  treacle  or  molasses,  jjotato  sugar  (grape  sugar  and  glu- 
cose) and  syrup. 

To  consumers  of  honey,  we  would  say  that  the  only  sure  way 
to  get  a  reliable  article  of  honey  is  to  inooure  it  in  original 
packages  properly  sealed,  and  bearing  the  label  of  some  known 
producer.  If  such  packages  are  tampered  with,  the  producer 
undoubtedly  has  a  remedy  at  common  law,  and  can  claim  heavy 
damages  from  the  seller. 

The  most  common  form  of  adulteration,  or  rather  of  substitu- 
tion, is  to  place  a  small  piece  of  comb  honey  in  a  glass  jar  and 
fill  up  the  jar  with  glucose.  The  presence  of  an  ounce  of  comb 
honey  generally  serves  as  a  credential  for  a  pound  of  glucose. 

Hoiiev.  Artificial. — When  a  substance  which  is  exactly  like  a 
natural  product,  in  its  chemical  and  physical  proiserties,  is  pro- 
duced by  art,  we  may  well  give  it  the  name  of  the  natural 
product  with  the  prefix  "artificial."  But  under  no  other  circum- 
stances can  this  be  justified.  Therefore,  we  have  no  such  thing 
as  artificial  honey.  We  have  adulterated  honey,  imitation  honey, 
fraudulent  honey,  but  no  artificial  honey;  for  the  simple  reason, 
that  as  3'et,  we  have  not  been  able  to  produce  the  article  in  our 
laboratories.  We  can  take  cane  sugar  syrup,  and  by  adding  a 
little  honey  we  have  something  which  may  be  sold  for  honej',  but 
only  by  fraud.  And  so  with  glucose.  If  this  be  added  to  honey 
we  get  a  product  with  all  tbe  evil  qualities  of  the  adulterant,  and 
with  the  delicate  flavor  and  stimulating  acid  of  the  honej' attenu- 
ated to  the  last  degree.  Such  mixtures  certainly  are  not  artifi- 
cial honey,  even  though  they  be  sold  for  such.  We  might  just  as 
well  call  a  mixture  of  milk  and  water,  artificial  milk. 

To  illustrate  still  further,  let  us  take  the  case  of  the  diamond: 
If  a  manufacturer  coiild  crystallize  carbon  so  as  to  form  a  gem 
like  the  diamond,  he  would  produce  something  which  might  be 
called  an  artificial  diamond,  for  it  would  be  really  and  truly  a 
dicDtiond  made  by  art.  Bat  a  piece  of  heavy  glass  or,  as  it  is 
called,  paste,  cannot  be  called  an  artificial  diamond,  even  though 
it  be  sold  and  used  as  such.  It  is  merely  an  imitation  diamond, 
which  is  a  very  diflerent  thing. 

Honey-board.— A  board  with  suitable  openings  placed  over 
the  frames  for  the  purpose  of  supporting  the  honey  boxes. 


44  DICTIONABX    OF 

Houey-bag;. — An  enlargement  of  the  alimentary  canal  of  the 
bee  in  which  it  carries  its  load  of  honey. 

H«uiey-box. — A  box  iu  which  bees  store  honey  apart  from 
the  hive. 

Honey-comb. — This  term  is  applied  generally  to  all  the  comb 
in  the  hive,  as  every  part  may  at  some  time  or  other  be  used  by 
the  bees  for  storing  honey.  Some  writers,  however,  use  this 
term  to  denote  comb  specially  set  apart  for  honey.  The  cells  iu 
such  comb  are  very  deep  and  frequently  turned  up  at  the  ends. 
See  Comb,  under  which  word  the  reader  will  find  the  chief 
points  of  practical  iutei'est  to  bee-keepers. 

In  regard  to  the  etymology  of  the  latter  part  of  the  word 
honeycovib  lexicographers  dififer  greatly  in  opinion;  Webster  and 
Worcester,  s.  v.  comb,  give  the  Anglo-Saxon  combe,  a  valley,  as  the 
word  from  which  it  is  derived;  Skeat  and  others  derive  it  from 
comb — the  same  word  as  that  used  to  denote  a  common  toilet 
article.  Skeat  say:  "The  likeness  to  a  comb  is  fanciful,  but 
there  is  no  doubt  about  the  word."  At  first  sight,  merely  calling 
to  mind  the  honeycomb  as  it  comes  to  table,  or  as  it  is  seen  in 
improved  hives,  the  likeness  is  rather  fanciful,  but  if  we  turn  up 
an  old-fashioned  skep,  and  notice  the  lower  edges  of  the  comb 
projecting  below  the  cluster  of  bees,  the  likeness  becomes  quite 
obvious,  especially  to  the  comb  once  used  by  women  to  keep 
their  hair  in  jjlace.  The  word  stands  alone  amongst  languages 
being  peculiar  to  English.  The  Germans  speak  of  honey-comb  as 
honig-scheibe — a  "shive"  or  slice;  Swedish,  honivgskaka;  Danish, 
hnnningkage — honey-cake;  Icelandish,  hnnangsseimr  ;  Dutch, 
lio7U(jzeem — honey-string;  French,  gateau— cake,  and  rayon — rays. 

Honey-dew. — The  best  authorities  are  agreed  that  there  are 
two  kinds  of  liouey-dew;  or,  at  least,  that  honey-dew  is  derived 
from  two  very  distinct  sources.  One  kind  is  purely  vegetable 
and  is  exuded  by  plants — often  to  such  an  extent  that  it  falls  on 
the  ground  in  a  shower.  The  other  kind  is  produced  by  aphides 
or  plant  lice.  Bee-keepers  are  justly  very  suspicious  of  honey- 
dew.  It  may  do,  perhaps,  for  warm-weather  food,  but  it  is  gen- 
erally agreed  that  bees  cannot  winter  well  on  it,  although  excep- 
tional cases  are  recorded. 

Honey  Extractor. — See  Extractor. 

Honey-^ate. — Since  thick  honey  does  not  flow  freely  through 
the  ordinary  faucet,  bee-keepers  have  adopted  the  "molasses- 
gate  "  as  it  is  called.  When  used  for  honey  it  is  properly  called 
a  lioney-gate.  The  pipe,  instead  of  being  closed  by  means  of  a 
stop  inserted  in  it,  is  shut  at  the  end  by  means  of  a  sliding  gate. 

Honey,  Granulated. — After  what  we  have  said  under  the 
head  Honey,  the  reader  will  readily  understand  how  it  is  that 
honey  granulates.  Granulation,  iu  this  case,  is  a  change  re- 
sulting in  crystallization,  and  the  exclusion  of  the  atmosphere 
serves  not  only  to  defer  the  change,  but  to  prevent  to  a  certain 


PRACTICAIi    APICUIiTUKE.  45 

extent,  the  stibsequeut  crystallization.  It  is  a  curious  fact  in  re- 
gard to  crystallization  that  when  a  strong  solution  is  sealed  up 
while  hot,  it  will  remain  liquid  indefinitely,  but  if  the  air  be 
admitted,  or  if  a  centre  of  crystallization  be  inserted  in  it,  the 
whole  at  once  assumes  the  crj'stalline  condition.  Take  a  satur- 
ated, boiling  solution  of  alum  or  glauber  salt,  contained  in  a 
glass  bottle  or  flask,  and  cork  it  tightly  with  a  good  common 
cork.  If  laid  aside  till  cold,  it  will  remain  clear  and  limpid,  but 
the  moment  the  cork  is  withdrawn,  crystals  shoot  through  every 
part  of  the  liquid,  and  the  whole  becomes  a  crystalline  mass. 
The  same  is  true  in  the  case  of  honey.  If  hermeticallj'  sealed 
(in  the  way  fruit  and  meat  is  put  up  in  air  tight  cans)  while 
warm  it  will  remain  liquid  indefinitely,  but  if  exposed  to 
the  air  while  the  temperature  is  low,  it  speedily  crystallizes.  May 
not  this  be  one  reason  why  the  bees  so  carefully  seal  their  winter 
stores? 

The  granulation  of  honey  is  a  very  good  test  of  its  purity. 
Imitation  and  adulterated  honeys  rarely  granulate.  Ignorant  per- 
sons, however,  who  are  not  aware  of  this  fact,  are  unfortunately 
apt  to  regard  granulated  honey  with  suspicion. 

Honey-house. — A  house  for  collecting  and  keeping  honey. 
It  is  generally  a  small  building  connected  with  the  apiary. 

Honey-knife. — 1.  A  long  thin  knife  used  for  separating  the 
combs  from  the  sides  of  a  box-hive.  2.  A  knife  of  peculiar 
shape  used  for  cutting  off  the  caps  of  the  honej"^  cells  before  the 
comb  is  placed  in  the  extractor. 

Honey,  Narbonne. — Honey  obtained  from  the  neighborhood  of 
the  town  of  Narbonne  in  France,  in  the  department  of  the  Aude, 
8  miles  from  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  an  old  town  and  was  known 
to  the  Greeks  500  years  b.  c.  For  a  long  period  it  was  a  most  mag- 
nificent city,  adorned  with  temples,  triumphal  arches  and  amphi- 
theatres, and  famous  for  the  purity  and  salubrity  of  its  air.  Now 
all  its  splendor  has  shrunk  into  a  collection  of  antiquities,  and 
its  only  celebrity  is  its  honey,  which  is  considered  the  best  in 
France,  and  by  some  the  best  in  the  world.  Narbonne  honey 
owes  its  delicious  flavor  solely  to  the  abundance  of  fine  honey- 
bearing  plants  especially  rosemar}',  which  grow  in  its  vicinity. 

Honey-sac. — See  Honey-bag. 

Honey  Sliuger.— An  extractor  (q.  v.) 

Honey,  Tirgin. — That  which  drains  spontaneously  from  the 
comb  when  the  cells  are  uncapped.  Some  authors  claim  that 
stocks  which  have  never  swarmed  can  alone  give  virgin  honey, 
but  this  W'ould  be  to  make  a  distinction  without  a  difference,  as 
the  fact  of  swarming  or  not  swarming  makes  no  difference  with 
the  honey. 

Honey  Wine.— Mead  (q.  v.) 

Honse  Apiary. — An  apiary  which  is  kept  in  a  house  specially 
constructed   for  the  purpose.    The  hives  are  reached  from  the 


46  DICTION  AKY    OF 

inside  by  the   apiarist,  and  the  bees  pass  out   and   in  through 
suitable  holes  in  the  sides. 

House,  Honey.— See  Honey-House. 

Hliiigariau  Bee. — A  race  of  the  honey  bee  found  in  Hungary. 
See  liiice. 

Hybrid. — The  term  hybrid  should  undoubtedly  be  ajjplied 
only  to  aiiinuils  whose  parents  are  of  different  species.  When 
the  parents  are  merely  different  races  or  breeds  of  the  same 
species,  the  product  is  more  properly  termed  a  cross  (q.  v. )  Con- 
sequently, unless  we  decide  that  the  Italian  and  the  common  bee 
are  distinct  species,  the  product  should  be  called  a  cross,  and 
not  a  hybrid  or  mule. 

One  of  the  special  characteristics  of  hybrids  or  mules,  at  least 
in  (he  higher  animals,  is  that  they  are  sterile  or  unfertile. 
Whether  this  law  extends  to  animals  h^werin  the  scale  of  being, 
insects,  for  example,  has  never  been  determined  so  far  as  we 
linow.  Indeed,  the  bee  is  the  oidy  insect  that  we  can  call  to 
mind,  to  the  breeding  of  which  it  has  ever  been  attempted  to 
apply  generally  received  jirinciples.  The  few  other  insects  that 
are  cultivated  by  man  are  never,  so  far  as  we  know,  controlled  in 
their  mating  propensities.  One  of  the  most  interesting  and 
scientific  results  to  be  derived  from  the  introduction  of  the  Apis 
Dorsala,  will  be  the  determination  of  this  point:  Will  the  pro- 
geny of  the  A.  Dorsata  and  any  of  the  varieties  of  the  A.  Melii- 
ficd,  be  fertile? 

So  far  as  we  can  at  present  see,  however,  the  term  hybrid,  as 
applied  to  the  progeny  of  an  Italian  queen  and  a  black  drone, 
is  entirely  incorrect.  The  progeny  is  merely  a  cross.  Still  more 
absurd  is  it  to  call  a  pure  Italian  queen,  fecundated  by  a  l)hick 
drone,  a  hybrid.  Such  a  queen  is  not  even  a  cross;  she  is 
merely  cross-mated,  or,  as  it  is  more  commonly  called,  impurely 
mated,  and  the  term  cross-mated  should  always  be  used  in  such 
cases.  There  ought  certainly  to  be  a  limit  to  the  iibsurdities  to 
which  language,  even  though  sanctioned  by  high  authorities, 
may  V)e  allowed  to  carry  us. 

Hybrid  Queen.— See  Queen,  Hybrid. 

Iniag'O. — 'I'he  fnlly  developed  insect.  The  last  and  perfected 
stage  of  insect  life,  when  the  pupa-case  or  mask  M'hich  covered 
it,  is  dropped,  and  the  inclosed  image  or  being  comes  forth. 

Inferior  Hive. — The  lowest  of 'a  storified  set. 

Introducinj;;'  a  Qneen. — When  a  queenless  colony  is  induced 
to  accept  a  strange  queen,  the  latter  is  said  to  be  successfully 
iutroduced.  The  conditions  upon  which  depends  success  in  the 
introduction  of  a  queen  are  not  fnlly  understood.  Sometimes  a 
queen  may  be  introduced  without  any  trouble  whatever;  at  other 
times,  the  bees  cannot  be  nuide  to  acceiit  a  queen  except  by  ex- 
traordinary methods.     It  is   said  that  if  queens  fire  introduced 


I-KACTICAL  APlCriiTtJRE.  47 

just  at  clnsk,  tlio  operation  is  luncli  more  likely  to  be  successful 
than  if  the  operatiou  be  performed  earlier  in  the  day. 

Italian  Bee. — A  race  of  bees  wbicli  seems  to  liave  been  devel- 
oped in  a  province  of  Northern  Italy,  north  of  the  Lignriau 
Gulf,  or  Gulf  of  Genoa.  This  region  is  shut  in  by  high,  snow- 
capped mountains  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  sea  on  the  other. 
The  bees  inhabiting  it  have  therefore  bred  in-and-in,  until  their 
characteristics  have  become  fixed  and  a  distinct  race  lias  been 
developed.  Spinola  called  it  the  LUjurian  Bee,  a  name  now  very 
generally  given  to  it  in  Europe. 

Italianizing'. — Changing  colonies  from  any  other  kind  of  bee 
to  Italians.  This  is  done  by  the  introduction  of  an  Italian 
queen. 

Jelly,  Royal.-  The  food  of  the  larva?  which  develop  into 
queens.  Its  composition  is  not  fully  Tiuderstood.  By  some  it  is 
supposed  to  be  precisely  the  same  as  the  food  upon  which  the 
larvae-workers  are  reared,  the  quantity  in  which  it  is  supplied 
alone  making  the  dilference.  Others  believe  that  its  composi- 
tion is  entirely  different.     The  subject  needs  investigation. 

Larva,  P)ural  Larvm.—h.n  insect  in  the  stage  between  the  egg 
and  the  i>upa.  The  word  means  masked,  because  the  true  char- 
acter of  the  perfect  insect  is  masked  or  hidden.  In  the  case  of 
butterflies  and  moths  the  larva  is  also  called  a  caterpillar,  and 
the  terms  worm,  maggot  and  grub, 
are  all  sometimes  applied  to  the 
larva  of  the  bee.  The  term  icorm 
is  decidedly  wrong,  since  the 
worms  are  not  insects  at  all.  The 
term  maggot  conveys  disgusting  as- 
sociations connected  withl)low-tiies 
and  putrid  flesh;  the  word  grub  is 
perhaps   better,   but  the  best    way 

LARVA  OF   BEE.  ^  /.  ,        .    .,  •         ,  i 

of  all  IS  to  adopt  the  simple  word 
larva  into  the  English  language.  The  accompanying  engraving 
shows  the  larva  of  the  bee  in  its  cell  and  considerably  magni- 
fied. For  the  various  stages  of  the  bee  in  its  progress  from  the 
egg  to  the  perfect  insect,  see  article  Bee. 

Lig'urian  Bee. — The  Italian  bee.  It  was  accurately  and  very 
fully  described  by  Spinola  in  his  "  InsecAormn  Lignrce  specie.'! 
novce  aid  variores."  He  found  it  in  Piedmont  in  1805.  See  Italian 
Bee  and  Race. 

Lignrianize.— To  Italianize. 

Late  Swarm.— See  Swarm,  Lale. 

Laying:  Worker.— See  Worker,  Fertile. 

Leaf  Hive.— See  Hive,  Leaf. 

Long  Idea  Hives.— See  New  Idea. 


4d  DtcmONAUt    OF 

Lnsatian  Experiment.— The  raisiug  of  queens  from  egg- 
workers. 

Lycoperdon. — There  are  several  species  of  this  fungus,  the 
one  generally  used  for  fumigating  bees  being  the  L.  giganieum. 
It  is  called  Lycopei-don  (wolf's  fart),  because  when  stepped  on,  it 
gives  a  sharp  puff  and  euiits  a  cloud  of  dust.     See  Paff-hidl. 

Maggot.— See  Larva. 

Maiden  Swarm. — The  first  swarm  that  issues  from  a  stock. 
By  some  this  term  is  applied  to  the  first  swarm  that  issues  from 
a  swarm  of  the  same  season. 

Maniibld  Hives. ^— Hives  with  numerous  coriipartments  which 
may  be  used  either  for  one  large  colony  or  several  of  moderate 
size. 

Manipulation. — Handling.  The  words  Handle,  Handling,  are 
greatly  to  be  preferred  to  manlpidate,  manipulaUon. 

Msirriage-lilglit.— Wedding  flight. 

Mat.  —  A  flexible  covering  for  the  frames.  It  may  be  made  of 
a  great  variety  of  materials— cloth,  oil-cloth,  wooden  strips,  etc. 

Maturing  Brood. — Brood  which  is  nearly  mature;  generally 
applied  to  emerging  brood  (q.  v. ) 

Mel  Extractor. — A  honey  extractor.     Obsolete. 

Melipult. — A  honey  extractor.     Obsolele. 

Metal  ('orners. — See  Comers,  Metal. 

Micropyle. — The  opening  in  the  egg  by  means  of  which  the 
spermatozoon  reaches  the  inside.  It  corresponds  to  the  opening 
or  foramen  of  the  seed  in  botany. 

Miller. — A  moth;  so-called  on  account  of  the  dusty  stains 
which  it  leaves  when  it  rubs  against  anything,  just  as  does  a 
man  who  works  in  a  flour  mill. 

Mismated.— Cross-mated. 

Moth. — This  is  the  popular  name  of  a  division  of  lepidopter- 
ous  insects,  readily  distinguished  from  the  butterflies  and  the 
sphinges  by  the  form  of  their  antennae. 

The  moth  which  is  of  special  interest  to  bee-keepers  is  that 
known  as  Qalleria  cereana—ihe  generic  name,  Galleria,  being  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  gallus,  a  fowl,  because  the  wings  when  shut 
together  turn  up  at  the  ends  like  the  tail  of  a  fowl.  The  spe- 
cific name,  cei-eava,  has  been  given  because  it  feeds  on  wax. 

The  female  moth  is  much  larger  and  darker  than  the  male,  and 
is  shown  in  Fig.  1— copied  from  the  excellent  illustrations  given 
by  Langstroth. 

The  male  is  shown  at  Fig.  2.  The  eggs  are  very  small  and 
round,  and  are  shown  full  size  at  the  left  of  Fig.  3;  those  at 
the  right  being  greatly  enlarged.  The  female  lays  her  eggs  on 
the  comb  if  she  can,  but  quite  as  often  in  some  crack  in  the  hive 
where  they  hatch,  and  afterwards  creep  into   the  inside.     Dr. 


PRACTICAL,    APICriiTrRE. 


49 


Fis;.  1.    FEMALE. 


FliJ.  2.  MALE. 


Fig.  3.  MOTH  EGGS. 


.:^*^I*H^ 


Fig.   i.    LABY.f:   OF    BEE   MOTH 
FULLY   GROWN'. 


Thacher,  in  bis  Treatise  (1828),  suggests  that  the  bees  themselves 
inaj'  carry  the   eggs  iuto   the  hive  on   their  legs.     After  a  short 
time   the  larvae  grow  to   the  size  of 
about  an  inch   and  present  the  ap- 
pearance shown  in  Fig.  4. 

They  now  spin  a  cocoon,  whence 
they  emerge  as  moths,  again  to 
set  in  motion  the  round  of  insect 
life. 

Thacher,  Harris  and  others?,  give 
April  or  May  as  the  earliest  period  at  which  the  moth  makes  its 
appearance.  On  the  9th  of  February,  ISSi,  I  found  two  moths 
in  full  vigor  in  a  hive  in  which  a  queenless  colony,  upon  which  I 
had  been  experimenting,  had  died.  The  hive  had  been  standing 
out  doors  all  winter,  exposed  to  a  temperature  of  10°  Fab.  after 
the  bees  died. 

Cleanliness,  watchfulness,  and  prompt  destruction  of  every 
moth,  cocoon  or  larvje,  will  be  found  great  aids  in  keeping  these 
depredators  in  check.  But  the  most  efl&cient  safeguards  are 
strong  stocks  and  Italian  bees. 

Moth. — See  Wax- Moth. 

Mother  Bee.— See  Queen. 

Moth  Larvae.— The  larva  of  the  bee-moth, 

Moth-iniller. — An  absurd  name  for  a  moth.  Amongst  bee- 
keepers it  is  generally  employed  to  denote  the  moth  whose  larvae 
or  young  destroy  the  combs  of  the  honey  bee.    See  Moth. 

Moth-trap. — A  trap  for  catching  moths.  Also  frequently  ap- 
plied to  a  trap  for  catching  their  larvje.  Most  traps  are  useless; 
if,  however,  a  loose  piece  of  wood  be  laid  on  the  bottom  or  against 
the  side  of  the  hive,  the  larvfe  of  the  moth  will  creep  under 
it,  and  may  be  caught  and  destroyed.  But  if  such  a  trap  be  not 
attended  to,  it  is  worse  than  useless. 

Moth-worm, — An  improper  name  for  the  larva  of  the  bee- 
moth. 

Movable  Frame.— See  Irame. 

Moving  Bees.— This  term  is  applied  to  the  transportation  of 
bees  from  one  place  to  another — sometimes  for  a  few  yards,  at 
other  times  for  miles. 

Mully  PufiF.— The  puff-ball  (q.  v.) 

Mule,— The  workers  have  been  so-called  by  some  writers.   The 


50  DICTIONARY    OF 

term  imile  is,  liowever,  properly  applicable  onlj'  to  the  prof^enj' 
of  two  distinct  species,  and  is  syuoiiyiiioiis  with  hybrid  (q.  v.) 

Nadir. — The  hive  which  is  set  under  another — Keys. 

A'adir-hirillg'. — Placing,'  a  hive  bdow  another  for  the  purpose 
of  ^ivin^  more  room.     The  opposite  of  super-hivin<j  ((j.  v.) 

NarlKHine  Honey. — See  Honey,  Narhomie. 

Kt'ctar. — The  sweet  secretion  found  in  the  nectaries  of  plants. 
Named  after  the  famous  drink  of  the  yods. 

Nectary. — The  honey-gland  of  a  flower. 

Neideriiig".— Same  as  Nadir-hiving  (q.  v.) 

Neuter.  Workers  are  frequently  but  improperly  so  called. 
The  term  is  a  relic  of  the  days  of  ignorance  in  regard  to  the 
physiology  of  the  bee. 

New  Idea  Hives.— This  term  lias  been  applied  at  different 
times  to  various  systems  and  devices,  but  in  general,  the  "new" 
idea  has  been  an  old  one  after  all.  The  system  which  came  into 
prominence  a  few  years  ago  as  the  "New  Idea"  consisted  in 
using  an  unusually  large  number  of  frames,  all  in  one  story. 
This,  we  believe,  was  the  main  i)oint,  though  there  were  other 
features  which  were  claimed  to  be  of  great  importance.  From 
the  great  length  of  these  hives  they  came  to  be  called  also  the 
"Long  Idea  Hives."  It  is  needless  to  say  that  there  was  little 
about  this  that  was  new.  Langstroth  tried  it  more  than  a  third 
of  a  century  ago,  and  we  ourselves,  prior  to  the  breaking  out  of 
the  late  civil  war,  had  put  it  in  jtractice.  Our  experience  was, 
that  it  was  a  most  excellent  system  for  raising  bees,  but  not  a 
very  good  one  for  raising  honey. 

Non-swarmer.  1.  A  hive  so  contrived  as  to  prevent  the  bees 
from  swarming.  2.  A  colony  from  which  no  swarm  has  come 
forth. 

Non-swarming'  Hive. — A  hive  so  contrived  as  to  prevent 
swarming.     It  has  not  yet  been  invented,  however. 

Normal.  'I'his  word  literally  means— 6?/ //ie  carpenier's  square 
being  derived  from  the  Latin  word  iwrma,  a  cari)enter's  squai-e. 
Itsignities,  "  according  to  established  rule  or  principle  ";  regular; 
usual.  The  word  abnormal  (q.  v.)  is  the  opposite,  and  signifies 
out  of  the  ordinary  course;  not  according  to  established  prin- 
ciples; exceptional. 

Nucleus,  Plural  Nuclei. — The  plural  nnclenses,  even  though 
sanetione(l  by  Webster,  is  barbarous.  Literally,  the  kernel  of  a 
nut.  A  centre  around  which  others  of  the  same  kind  may 
gather.  In  bee-keeping  it  signifies  a  very  small  colony  of  bees 
which,  by  care  may  l>e  increased  to  a  full  sized  colony.  Such 
small  colonies  usually  consist  of  one  or  two  frames  of  comb  with 
a  queen  or  queen-cell,  and  a  few  hundred  bees.  It  is  astonishing 
how  small  a  colony  will,  under  favorable  circumstances,  increase 
to  a  full  sized  one.     We  have  had  a  colony,  so  small  that  it  coV' 


PBACTICAIj    apicultuke.  51 

ered  but  a  small  portion  of  an  |_  frame,  increase  so  that  it  win- 
tered and  became  a  powerful  colony.  But  the  most  astonisliiug 
case  on  record  is  that  of  Mr.  Doolitlle,  who  once  had  a  colony 
become  so  reduced,  that  by  actual  count  there  M'ere  only  81  bees 
and  the  queen,  and  so  they  held  on  till  warm  weather,  when 
they  built  up  without  help,  and  actually  gave  a  surplus  of  5  lbs. 
on  buckwheat,  in  sections,  and  were  in  splendid  condition  for 
winter.  Such  nuclei,  however,  should  not  be  made  to  gather 
stores  or  build  comb.  A  weak  colony  cannot  build  comb  in  cool 
weather,  even  if  fed,  while  a  strong  colony  will  build  comb  with 
the  thermometer  below  20°  Fall,  if  they  have  food.  We  had  5 
lbs.  of  bees  in  a  box  (taken  from  a  box-hive  which  was  to  have 
been  brimsloned),  and  while  preparing  to  get  thein  ready  for 
winter  they  were  fed  sugar  syrup.  As  they  had  a  little 
comb  in  the  box,  we  gave  them  what  we  thought  was  enough 
syrup  to  fill  it;  but  instead  of  storing  it,  they  used  it  to  build 
two  small  sheets  of  beautiful  white  comb  !  The  thermometer 
stood  at  18°  Fah. 

Neither  should  such  small  colonies  be  compelled  to  go  abroad 
much  for  stores,  except  in  veiy  warm  weather.  If  fed  a  little 
every  two  or  three  days  they  will  stay  at  home  and  cover  their 
brood,  but  if  compelled  to  forage,  the  brood  becomes  chilled,  if 
the  weather  is  at  all  cool,  the  bees  get  disgusted  and  desert  their 
hive  in  a  body. 

Nurse  Bees  i  it  is  generally  believed  that  the  duty  of 
Nursing"  Bees  f  nursing  the  brood  devolves  upon  the  young 
l)ees — those  of  two  weeks  old  or  less.  Hence  tliey  are  called 
nurses  or  nursbi<j  befs.  Old  bees,  however,  will  care  for  brood,  as 
we  have  shown,  by  moving  a  colony  in  the  evening  to  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  old  stand,  and  placing  its  own  queen  with 
perfectly  empty  comb  on  the  old  stand.  The  tirst  time  we  tried 
this  the  bees  deserted;  the  second  time  they  stayed,  as  we  gave 
them  comb  into  which  we  had  poured  honey  and  also  comb  with 
larvae  just  hatched.  They  went  to  work;  the  queen  laid  eggs 
which  in  due  time  matured,  and  the  colony  became  quite  strong. 

Nursery,  Lnuip. — This  consists  of  a  double-walled  hive  made 
of  tin.  The  space  between  the  walls  holds  a  liberal  supply  of 
warm  water,  M'hich  is  kept  at  an  eqiiable  temperature  by  means 
of  a  lamp.  When  a  frame  with  a  sealed  queen  cell  is  placed  in 
such  a  hive  or  nursery  and  covered  with  a  thick  mat,  the  queens 
emerge  quite  as  well  as  when  the  cells  are  left  in  the  hive  from 
which  they  were  taken.  Some  assert  that  queens  matured  in 
this  way  are  weaker  than  those  that  are  matured  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  while  others,  and  those  amongst  our  prominent 
queeu-ruisers,  claim  that  there  is  no  difference. 


Nymj)!! 
Nyiupha 


An  insect  in  the  pupa  state. 


52 


DICTIONARY    OP 


Observable  Hive     1    A  hive  with  gLiss  sides,  through  which 
Observation  Hive    I    *^®  operations  of  the  bees  ruay  be  ob- 

Observatory  Hive    i  f^V^^'    ^"''i^  ^  ^X'^  !^''"^'^  ''°"*''''' 
Oh      •  •     '  ■  W  ^°^  comb,  so  that   the  queen  may 

UDserver  s  Hive  he   always  in  view.     When   not  under 

Observing  Hive       J    observation   the  ghiss   is  covered   with 

wooden  panels  which  exclude  the  light. 

As  to  which  of  the  above  five  terms  is  the  best,  it  would   be 

difficult  to  say.     The   second  and  last  are  decidedly  the  worst; 

number  three  is  the  one  most  commonly  used;   the  first  and 

fourth  are  the  most  logical.     They  have  all  been  used  by  authors 

at  different  times. 

Opeu-end  Frames.— Frames  in  which  the  end  bars  are  so 
narrow  that  the  edges  do  not  meet  when  the  frames  are  placed 
in  the  hive.  There  is,  consequently,  a  passage  whereby  the  bees 
can  reach  the  space  between  the  frames  and  the  sides  of  the  hive 
or  outer  case. 

Ovary, — The  organ  in  which  eggs  are  formed.  In  the  queen 
bee  they  are  large  and  fully  developed,  but  in  the  worker,  they 
are  abortive.  Sometimes,  however,  they  become  so  far  devel- 
oped in  the  latter  as  to  produce  eggs,  and  in  that  case  the  bee  is 
called  a  fertile  or  laying  worker  (q.  v.) 

Over-stock. — To  keep  in  any  locality  more  bees  than  can  find 
a  full  supply  of  honey.  Some  authors  doubt  the  possibility  of 
doing  this  in  any  case  whatever;  but  it  has  been  so  thoroughly 
proved,  that  fifty  colonies  in  most  apiaries  will  gather  much 
more  honey  per  colony  than  can  one  hundred,  that  there  can  no 
longer  be  any  doubt  in  regard  to  it. 

Oviduct. — The  tube  through  which  the  egg  passes  when  it 
leaves  the  ovary. 

Palestine  Bees. — The  bees  found  in  the  southern  portion  of 
the  Holy  Land  are  said  by  Mr.  Benton  to  be  far  inferior  to  those 
found  beyond  the  chain  of  mountains  which  crosses  the  northern 
portion  of  the  country.  The  latter  he  calls  Syrian  bees.  See 
Holylaml  Bee. 

Paraffin. — The  substance  known  as  paraffin  or  paraffine  in 
this  country,  is  a  solid,  white  material,  jierfectly  inodorous  and 
tasteless,  somewhat  resembling  spermaceti.  Paraffin  is,  how- 
ever, a  generic  name  for  a  series  of  compounds  which  range  in 
consistency  from  heavy  gases  to  hard  solids,  and  even  the  sub- 
slance  that  we  buy  and  use  as  jiaraffiii  does  not  possess  any 
chemical  individuality,  but  is  probably  a  mixture  of  several 
compounds.  In  England,  the  term  paraffin,  is  as  frequently  ap- 
plied to  the  liquid  as  to  a  solid  form;  and  consequent!}',  we  find 
frequent  references  to  "paraffin  lamps" — something  very  i>uz- 
zling  to  those  who  are  not  aware  of  these  facts. 

Paraffin  possesses  an  interest  to  the  bee-keeper  from  the  fact 
that  it  is  frequently  \ised  as  a  means  of  adulterating  wax.    It  has 


PRACTICAL   APICttLTrRE.  53 

even  been  suggested  as  a  material  for  foundation — a  purpose  for 
which  it  is  totally  unlit,  as  its  melting  point  is  only  112°  Fah., 
while  that  of  wax  is  145°.  The  consequence  is,  that  it  melts  by 
the  heat  of  the  hive,  and  the  entire  mass  of  comb,  honey  and 
brood  falls  down  in  a  disgusting  mass  of  irreparable  ruin.  For 
a  method  of  detecting  parafl&n  when  used  to  adulterate  wax,  see 
W(tx. 

Paraffin  is  a  most  useful  substance  in  its  place.  It  answers 
equally  as  well  as  wax  for  coating  the  inside  of  wooden  vessels, 
and  it  is  used  for  making  beautiful  water-proof  paper  and  cloth, 
which  serve  to  protect  articles  from  dampness  or  leakage. 

Some  of  the  mineral  resins  or  paraffins  have  a  melting  point 
higher  than  that  of  the  article  usually  sold,  and  it  has  been  sug- 
gested that  they  might  be  used  for  foundation,  but  we  would 
strongly  advise  the  bee-keeper  to  keep  everything  except  pure 
wax  and  honey  out  of  the  products  of  his  apiary. 

Parasite. — A  plant  or  animal  which  obtains  nourishment  from 
the  body  of  another  plant  or  animal  during  the  whole  or  a  part 
of  its  existence.  In  the  case  of  animal  parasites,  when  they  live 
in  the  interior  of  the  animal  on  whose  juices  they  feed,  they  are 
called  e/i/020rt  (singular,  e?j^02oon);  when  they  live  on  the  outside 
(as  do  lice,  etc.),  they  are  called  edozoa  (singular,  ectozoon);  or, 
eplzoi  (singular,  epizoon).  Animals  which  merely  live  with 
others,  eating  the  Ibod  of  the  latter,  and  existing  only  where  the 
host  IS  present,  are  called  inessmuies.  The  animal  which  harbors 
the  parasite  is  called  the  host. 

The  bee  is  not  seriously  troubled  with  parasites.  We  have  oc- 
casionally found  it  infected  with  a  minute  species  otjilaria; 
bacteria  and  fungi  are  often  present,  and  it  is  supposed  that  a 
peculiar  species  of  the  latter  gives  rise  to  the  disease  known  as 
foul  brood.  Of  the  ectozoa  that  infest  it  there  are  two  or  three, 
but  they  do  but  little  damage  to  a  strong  stock. 

Parent  Coloiiy  ?  The  colony  or  stock  from  which  a  swarm  is- 

Parent  Stock    S  ^"^^  ^°^^^- 

Partheuog:eiiesis. — The  production  of  young  by  a  female 
without  intercourse  with  the  male. 

Pastlir.lge,  IJee.— Plants  from  which  bees  procure  honey.  It 
is  natural  or  artificial  according  as  it  is  wild  or  cultivated. 

Pauper  Swarm.— A  deserting  colony  (q.  v.) 

Pavillion. — The  middle  hive  on  the  collateral  system. 

Piling:. — Placing  hives  one  above  the  other;  storyfying. 

Piper. — An  after-swarm  having  a  virgin  queen. 

Piping  of  Queens. — A  sound  made  by  young  queens  when 
there  is  also  in  the  hive  a  mature  queen,  but  one  not  yet  emerged 
from  her  cell. 

Pissoceros. — Literally,  pitch-icax.  Modern  authors  consider 
it  equivalent  to  propolis.     Pliny  tells  us  that  it  is   the   second 


54 


DICTIONARY    OF 


fouiulation  of  the  honey-couib,  the  first  being  called  ^Mnmosin 
by  the  experienced,  suid  the  ihhd projjolis. 

Pollen. — The  minute  grains  which  fecundate  the  ovules  con- 
tained within  the  female  organs  of  the  plant.  It  has  also  been 
called /(trina,  but  this  term,  in  this  sense,  is  obsolete.  It  is  not 
even  given  in  Balfour's  Glossary  of  Botanical  Terms.  Pollen  is 
also  called  hee-bread,  and  from  a  mistaken  idea  that  it  was  the 
crude  material  from  which  combs  are  made,  it  has  been  called 
raw  wax. 

Pollen  presents  a  peculiar  and  characteristic  appearance  under 
the  microscope,  and  at  one  time  its  presence  in  honey  was  re- 
garded as  an  evidence  of  the  purity  of  that  article.  But  the 
purer  the  honey,  the  less  pollen  will  there  be  found  in  it.  The 
grains  of  pollen  vary  with  different  orders  and  families  of  plants, 
but  are  constant  in  form  for  each  species,  and  even  for  some 
genera.     A  microscope  of  very  moderate   power  is  sufficient  to 

A  B 


POLLEN  (JRAINS. 


show  their  form  and  markings  which  are  often  very  beautiful,  as 
will  be  seen  by  the  accompanying  engraving,  taken  from  Car- 
l)enter's  woi'k  on  the  microscope.  The  tit^uros  in  the  engraving 
give  a  very  good  idea  of  the  variation  in  form  of  dilferent  kinds 
of  jtollen.  That  marked  A  is  from  the  Altha'a  rosea ;  ii  is  from 
(hhd'a  scandeiis  ;  C  from  Passion  flower  (Pussiflora  Gcerulea),  and 
D  from  Jfroma-a  purjyici  ea. 

Pollen,  Artificial. — We  have  not  yet  succeeded  in  producing 
pollen  artificially,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  we  ever  shall.  The 
term  ardfirud poUen,  is  therefore  a  misnomer.     But  we  have  good 


PRACTICAL    APICTJIiTUKE.  55 

substitutes  for  pollen,  amongst  which  are  the  meals  of  rye,  oats, 
and  wheat.  The  best,  however,  is  pea-meal.  This  was  to  have 
been  expected  from  its  highly  nitrogenous  character,  and  prac- 
tice fully  confirms  what  theory  suggests.  It  is  a  great  mistake, 
however,  to  call  meal  or  Hour,  artificial  pollen. 
PolleiiarioilS.— Consisting  of  meal  or  jjollen. 

Pollen  Basket. — A  concavity  found  on  the  leg  of  the  worker 
bee.  It  is  surrounded  with  stiff  hairs  which  literally  form  a  kind 
of  basket  in  which  the  bee  packs  and  carries  pollen. 

Portico. — A  porch  or  covering  for  the  entrance  to  the  hive. 
It  may  be  made  quite  ornamental,  and  if  properly  designed, 
may  be  made  to  protect  the  entrance  from  wind  and  rain.  It 
leaves  a  large  opening  for  the  bees  to  strike  in  the  first  place, 
while  the  passage  from  the  outside  of  the  j>ortico  to  the  narrow 
entrance  of  the  hive  is  thoroughly  sheltered. 

Prime  Swarm. — A  first  swarm;  one  led  off  by  a  fecundated 
queen. 

Princess. — A  young  or  virgin  queen. 

Prize-sectiou. — See  Section. 

Propolis. — A  resinous  substance  collected  from  various  plants 
by  the  bees  and  used  by  them  for  fastening  movable  parts  of 
their  hives,  filling  up  cracks,  covering  offensive  matter,  and  sim- 
ilar purposes.  Sometimes  improperly  callcii  a  gum,  which  it  is 
not;  the  term  bee-gum  is  used  by  some  English  writers  as  a  name 
for  propolis. 

Prune. — To  cut  out  old  combs  so  that  new  may  be  built.  Called 
by  the  older  writers  gelding. 

Propolize. — To  cover  with  propolis. 

Pucks.— Puff-balls. 

Puff'-ball.  —  A  large  fungus,  filled  with  dust  when  ripe.  When 
thoroughly  dried  it  is  used  for  smoking  bees,  and  is  a  very 
powerful  narcotic. 

A  knowledge  of  this  plant  and  its  uses  in  apiculture  came  to 
us  from  Great  Britain,  where  there  are  two  genera  of  puff-liall — 
the  Bovista  and  Lycopei-clon— the  latter  being  the  one  generally 
used  for  stupefying  bees  by  fumigation.  The  species  generally 
employed  is  the  Lycopeidon  giyanieum,  which  sometimes  attains  a 
size  of  two  feet  in  diameter,  and  is,  in  its  earlier  stages,  of  a 
dirty  white  color,  hut  becomes  brown  by  age.  When  quickly 
crushed  (as  when  trod  on)  it  explodes  with  a  puff  and  sends  out 
a  cloud  of  dust.  Hence  the  scientific  name  Lycoperdon  (q.  v.), 
and  also  the  old  English  name  "wolfs  bladder."  It  had  a  place 
in  the  old  jiharmacies  as  a  sovereign  application  for  staunching 
blood,  and  was  also  used  as  tinder  in  the  days  before  matches, 
though  for  both  these  purposes  several  species  of  Boletus  were 
more  frequently  used,  and  indeed  have,  even  now,  a  jilace  in 
thepharmacopceia.     When  young  and  pulpy  the  lycoperdon  is 


66  IWCTIONAKY    OF 

excellent  eating,  but  it  deteriorates  very  rapidly  after  being 
gathered,  and  should  be  discarded  if,  when  exit,  any  yellow 
marks  or  stains  are  visible,  for  then  it  is  too  old. 

For  fumigating  bees,  they  are  dried  by  artificial  heat. 
Thorley,  in  his  ••Melissologia  or  Female  Monarchy,"  gives  the 
following  directions  for  collecting  and  using  it.  "  When  you 
have  procured  one  of  these  pucks  put  it  into  a  large  paper, 
pressing  it  down  therein  to  two-thirds  or  near  one-half  the  bulk, 
tying  it  up  very  close.  Put  it  into  an  oven  some  time  after  the 
household  bread  is  drawn,  letting  it  continue  all  night.  When 
it  will  hold  fire  it  is  fit  for  your  use  in  the  method  following. 
With  a  pair  of  scissors  cut  a  piece  of  the  puck  as  lai-ge  as  a  hen's 
egg  (better  at  first  to  have  too  much  than  too  little),  and  fix  it 
to  the  end  of  a  small  stick  slit  for  that  purpose,  and  sharpened 
at  the  other  end,  which  place  so  that  it  may  hang  near  the  middle 
of  an  empty  hive.  This  hive  you  must  set  with  the  mouth 
upwards,  near  the  stock  you  intend  to  take,  in  a  pail  or  bucket. 
This  done,  set  fire  to  the  puck  with  a  candle,  and  immediately 
place  the  stock  of  bees  over  it,  tying  a  cloth  round  the  hives 
that  no  smoke  may  come  forth.  In  a  minute's  time,  or  a  little  more, 
you  will  with  delight  hear  them  drop  like  peas  into  the  empty  hive. 
When  the  major  part  of  them  are  down,  and  you  hear  very  few 
fall,  you  may  beat  the  top  of  the  hive  gently  with  your  hand,  to 
get  as  many  out  as  you  can.  Then,  loosing  the  cloth,  lift  it  off 
to  a  table,  or  broad  board,  prepared  on  purpose,  and  knocking 
the  hive  against  it  several  times,  many  more  will  tumble  out, 
perhaps  the  queen  amongst  them,  as  I  have  often  found.  Lodg- 
ing near  the  crown,  she  often  retains  her  hold,  and  falls  one  of 
the  last." 

Piiffs.— Puff-balls. 
Punk-flst.— The  puff-ball. 

Pupa.— A  bee  in  its  later  stage  as  sealed   brood.     During  (he 
earlier  period  of  its   existence   as   sealed  "brood,  it  is  simply  a 
larva— not  having  spun  its   cocoon.     After  the  cocoon 
has  been   spun  it  is   a  pupa,  and  so  remains  until  it 
emerges  as  an  imcifjo  or  perfect  bee. 

The  appearance  of  the  pupa  when  changing  its  form 
from  that  of  the  larva  to  that  of  the  fully  developed 
bee,  is  very  well  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure  from 
Bevan. 

The    appearance    of    the     bee    during    the    several 

changes   from  egg  to   imago  are   beautifully  shown  in 

PUPA       Girdwoyn's    work       "  Anatomie     et     Physiologie     de 

I'Abeille,"  Plate  XII. 
Pm-e^—Tliis   may   be  a   contraction    for   either  purebred    or 
purely  mated.     It  should  therefore  never  be  used  alone. 

Oueeil.— n.  The  mother  of  all  the  bees   raised  under   natural 
conditions  in  the  hive.* 


It  is  a  common  practice  to  transpose  the  comb,  eggs,   an4   brood  of  diffeient 


PRACTICAL     APICULTUBE. 


57 


Although  all  the  workers  are  females  aud  should  not  be 
sjioken  of  as  of  the  niasculiue  gender,  as  is  too  commonly  done, 
the  queen  is  the  only  fully  developed  female  in  the  hive. 
Some  old  writers  spoke  of  her  as  the  "King  Bee,"  aud  this  error 
survives  even  to-day  amougst  some  non-progressive  bee-keepers. 

Qlieeu. — I'.  To  supply  a  queen  to  a  colony.  To  introduce  a 
queen. 

Qlieeu  Cage. — A  cage  or  box  for  holding  a  queen  diiring  cer- 
tain operations.  Thus  it  is  used  fur  sending  queens  by  mail; 
for  keejiing  queens  temporarily  out  of  the  hive;  for  protecting 
queens  during  the  process  of  introducing.  It  generally  consists 
tif  a  wooden  block  with  a  large  opening  covered  with  wire  gauze. 

Queen  Cell. — A  large  cell  in  which  a  queen  is  raised.  The 
accompanying  engravings  from  Laugstroth   give  an   excellent 


QFEEX    CELLS. 


view  of  a  queen  cell.  Fig.  1  shows  the  cell  as  seen  before  the 
queen  emerges;  Fig.  2  shows  the  same  cell  with  the  side  broken 
away  by  the  engraver,  so  as  to  show  the  royal  pupa  within. 

Queen,  Cross-mateid.  —A  queen  that  has  been  mated  with  a 
drone  of  another  race.  Generally,  but  improperly  called  an 
impurely  vvded  queen.  Sometimes,  and  still  more  improperly 
termed,  a  hi,brld  queen. 

Queen,  Dollar. — A  term  used  to  denote  an  untested  queen, 
bred  from  a  purely  bred  mother  that  has  mated  with  one  of  her 
own  race.  So-called,  because  the  standard  price  was  supposed 
to  be  one  dollar.  Strange  to  say,  however,  the  price  of  "dollar" 
queens  varies  from  75  cents  to  $2.  The  term,  therefore,  looks 
very  much  like  a  misnomer. 

Queen,  Hybrid. — An    improper    name  for    a    queen    whose 

hives,  and  consequently,  the  progeny  (if  a  pure  Italian  queen  is  often  raised  in  a 
colony  of  blacks:  but  tliis  is  an  artificial,  not  a  natur.tl  coujitiou.  The  presence  of 
fertile  workers  is  also  an  abnormal  condition. 


58  DICTIONAKY    OF 

mother  had  been  cross-mated.  Thus  far,  we  have  no  evidence 
that  we  have  any  hybrid  bees  (see  Hybrid),  but  if  we  use  the  word 
"  hybrid  "  instead  of  the  more  appropriate  term,  "  cross  bred," 
then  a  hybrid  queen  is  one  that  is  produced  from  the  eggs  of  a 
cross-mated  queen.  But  to  complicate  and  coufuse  matters  still 
more,  the  term  hybi-id  is  applied  bj'  many  writers,  and  iu  ahnost 
all  the  trade  circulars,  to  pure-bred  queens  which  are  cross- 
mated.     Such  queens  are  not  even  crosses  let  alone  hybrids. 

Queen,  Impurely  Mated.  —A  queen  that  has  met  a  drone  of 
another  race  is  said  to  be  "  impurely  mated."  We  prefer  the 
term  "cross-mated." 

Queenless. — Having  no  queen. 

Queen  Raising:   i  The  process  of  developing  queens  from  the 

Queen  Rearing  j  egg  or  larva.     See  Raising. 

Queen,  Tested.  —  A  queen  whose  i)rogeuy  has  been  examined 
anil  found  to  be  pure-bred.  Consequently,  the  queen  must  be 
pure,  and  not  cross-mated.  By  pure  is  meant  that  she  is  of 
some  well-detiued  race,  such  as  the  Black  bee,  the  Italian  bee, 
the  Cyprian  bee,  etc.  It  may  seem  strange  to  talk  of  a  tested 
black  queen,  but  it  is  perfectly  proper  to  do  so,  and  might  be 
necessary. 

Queen,  Virgin. — A  queen  which  has  not  met  a  drone;  an 
unimpregnated  queen;  an  unfecuudated  queen. 

Queen,  Warranted. — A  queen  which  has  not  been  tested  (see 
Quet7i,  tested),  but  which  the  seller  agrees  to  replace  if  it  should 
prove  that  her  progeny  are  not  pure-bred. 

Queen-yard. — This  was  a  device  of  the  late  Mr.  Quinby  and 
was  intended  to  prevent  the  loss  of  queens  with  clipped  wings 
when  they  attempted  to  lead  off  a  swarm.  It  consisted  of  a 
small  "yard  "  lined  with  tin,  and  with  a  smooth  tin  ledge  which 
projected  internally  so  as  to  prevent  the  queen  from  crawling 
out.  Its  use  has  been  abandoned;  one  reason  being  that  a  num- 
ber of  bees  would  often  cluster  in  one  corner  of  the  ynrd,  and 
the  queen  would  escape  by  crawling  through  this  cluster. 

Quilt. —A  device  for  preventing  the  escape  of  heat  from  the 
brood-cluster.  The  arrangement  most  frequently  used  consists 
of  two  thicknesses  of  cloth  with  some  porous  material  between 
them  and  the  whole  "  quilted  "  together.  This  has  the  great  ad- 
vantage that  the  whole  can  be  lifted  off  at  once,  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  we  have  found  that  when  coated  with  propolis,  wax,  etc., 
such  quilts  become  so  stiff  and  creased  that  it  is  impossible  to 
make  them  lie  flat  on  the  frames;  bees,  therefore,  escape,  annoy 
the  operator,  and  in  cold  weather  die,  because  they  cannot  find 
their  way  back  to  the  cluster.  We  prefer,  therefore,  to  cover  the 
frames  with  a  thin,  tough  sheet  (enamel  cloth  in  summer,  duck 
in  winter),  and  lay  the  quilt  on  this.  In  this  waj',  any  old  cloth 
or  carpet  makes  a  most  excellent  quilt  when  cut  to  the  proper 
sige. 


PRACTlCAIi   APICULTURE. 


59 


QuInoiiiiXi — This  word  is  derived  from  the  five  marks  on  a 
five  ounce  weight,  aud  signifies  an  arrangement  in  fives,  this 
being  the  least  number  that  will  exhibit  the  system,  the  special 
feature  of  which  is  that  the  objects  stand  in  straight  rows  in 
four  different  directions,  so  that  if  they  were  trees  or  other 
plants,  a  cultivator  might  be  run  between  them  on  four  different 
lines.  If  it  be  desired  to  get  the  greatest  number  of  plants  on  a 
given  area,  and  still  keep  them  the  greatest  possible  distance 
ajjart  from  each  other  in  every  direction,  the  quincunx  system 
enables  us  to  do  it.  The  objects  may  be  arranged  as  in  the 
accompanying  figure,  where  it  will  be  seen  that  they  form  rows, 

»  *  «  ft  « 


^ 


<? 


the  objects  in  the  alternate  rows  "breaking  joint"  with  those 
in  the  others,  and  the  rows  being  placed  at  such  a  distance  apart 
that  the  distances  between  any  object  and  those  lying  around  it 
are  all  equal. 

The  quincunx  arrangement  has  been  strongly  recommended 
for  the  hives  in  an  apiary,  and  it  serves  admirably.  It  has  been 
sometimes  improperly  called  the  hexagonal  system,  from  the  fact 
that  each  hive  is  surrounded  by  six  othgrs,  all  at  equal  distances 
from  it  and  from  each  other.  The  system  is  a  very  old  one,  and 
it  would  be  a  pity  to  introduce  a  new  and  inaccurate  name  for  it. 
Rabbet. — When  one  part  of  the  edge  of  a  piece  of  wood 
is  planed  lower  than  the  rest,  the  lower  part  is  called  a 
rahhet  or  rebate.  In  Fig.  1,  II  is  the  rabbet,  and  upon  this  lower 
portion  the  arms  of  the  frames  rest,  so  that  their 
upper  surface  may  not  project  above  the  walls 
of  the  hive;  otherwise,  the  bees  would  get  out  here 
and  cause  annoyance. 

Strange  to  say,  the  term  rabbet  has  been  "  lately 
applied  to  a  strip  of  folded  tin,  to  be  used  in  any 
hive  where  the  frames  are  suspended  by  the  top 
bar."  In  Fig.  2  the  folded  tin  strip.  A,  will  be  seen 
resting  on  the  rabbet  as  just  defined.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  edge  of  the  tin  upon  which  the 
arm  rests  is  jiist  the  reverse  of  a  rabbet,  and  to 
call  it  a  rabbet  is  an  absurdity.  It  should  be 
called  a  suppwt,  bearer,  or  some  similar  name,  but 


eo 


BICTIONAET    OF 


F\S.  2. 


certainly  not  a  rabbet.  Some  English  writers  call  it  a  runner.  Tout 
we  prefer  the  word  support  in  such  cases.     See  Support. 

Race. — The  term  "race,"  in  the  sense  of  kind,  is  used  to  de- 
note a  variety  which,  by  long  exposure  to  peculiar  influences 
and  conditions,  has  lost  the  tendency  to  recur  to  the  original 
tj'^pe.  A  race  differs  from  a  breed  (q.  v.),  in  that  it  has  been  pro- 
duced by  natural  means;  and  from  a  variety  \n  that  it  has  en- 
dured longer,  and  has  become  more  permanent.  Onr  most 
scientific  bee-keepers  acknowledge  quite  a  number  of  distinct 
races  of  bees,  amongst  which  may  be  named  the  Black,  Brown  or 
Oerman  Bee;  the  Carniolau;  the  Caucasian;  the  Cyprian;  the 
Dalmatian;  the  Egyptian;  the  Holyland,  Sj'rian,  or  Palestine; 
the  Hungarian;  the  Italian  or  Ligurian,  for  a  short  description 
of  all  which,  see  Tinder  these  several  heads.  In  the  case  of 
some  of  these — notably  the  Italians  and  the  Cyprians,  the  race 
has  been  hemmed  in  for  hundreds,  perhaps  thousands  of  years, 
by  a  wide  extent  of  sea,  or  by  mountain  tops  whose  snow-clad 
summits  were  an  effectual  barrier  to  the  passage  alike  of  the 
queens,  drones,  and  swatms  of  other  races. 

Rack. — n.  1.  This  word  was  originally  used  to  signify  tliegrat- 
ing  placed  above  a  manger  for  holding  hay;  Bailey  defines  it  as 
"a  wooden  frame  to  hold  fodder  for  cattle,  or  to  put  bottles  in." 
In  bee-keeping  the  term  honnj  ?v/c/c  is  the  name  of  an  open  frame- 
work or  crate  })laced  upon  the  brood  frames  for  the  purpose 
of  holding  sections  or  honey-boxes.  2.  The  term  rack  is  also 
used  in  mechanics  to  signify  a  straight  bar  with  teeth  or  projec- 
tions. Hence  it  lias  been  applied  to  a  bar  having  notches  and 
fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the  hive  for  the  purpose  of  keei)ing 
the  frames  the  proper  distance  apart.  Used  with  very  deep 
frames  and  when  moving  stocks. 

Rack.  —  V.  To  draw  off  clear  liquid  from  sediment. 

Raise  /  Both  these   erms  are  properly  applied  to  the  producing 

Rear   f  and   bringing  up  of  young  animals.     Webster  defines 

raise  thus:  "To  cause  to  grow;  to  procure  to  be  produced,  bred, 

or  propagated."     Rear  he  defines  thus:  "To  bring  tip  or  to  raise 

to   maturity."     Queen-raising  and   queen-rearing  are  both  proper. 


PRACTICAL    APICTTLTtJEE. 


61 


Worcester,  and  other  authorities,  give  substantially  the  same 
ileiinitions.  The  best  etymological  authorities  agree  that  the 
words  are  originally  the  same.  They  may,  therefore,  be  used 
interchangeably. 

Raw  Wax. — A  name  given  by  some  old  writers  to  pollen.     It 
is  founded  on  the  erroneous  idea  that  bees  collect  wax. 
Rebate.— See  Rnhbet. 

Rectangle.— A  figure  in  which  all  the  angles  are  right  angles. 
It  must  therefore  be  four-sided. 
The  sides,  however,  need  not  be 
all  equal.  The  opposite  sides  must 
be  equal.  A  rectangle  is  not  neces- 
sarily oblong;  it  maybe  a  square, 
for  every  square  is  a  rectangle, 
though  every  rectangle  is  not  a 
square. 

Re-hive. — We  would  suggest  the 
more  general  use  of  this  word  to  signify  the  transposing  of 
frames  and  bees  from  one  hive  to  another  where  the  combs  are 
not  cut  out,  and  pxit  in  new  frames.  We  need  such  a  word  to 
signify  the  minor  operation  of  transposing  from  the  more  im- 
portant one  of  transferring,  and  the  expression,  re-hiving,  seems 
to  us  to  meet  the  case.     See  Transfer. 

Render  Wax,  To.— To  melt  and  clarify  it.  This  is  best 
done  in  the  Wax  Extractor,  but  may  be  done  in  a  common  pot  or 
kettle.     See  Wax. 

Rhomb.— A  four-sided  figure  whose  sides  are  all  equal  and 
the  opposite  sides  parallel  to  each  other,  but  whose  angles  are  un- 
equal, two  of  the  angles  being  obtuse  and  two  acute. 


KECTAXULE. 


Rhomboid.— A  foTir-sided  figure  whose  opposite  sides  and 
angles  are  equal,  but  which  is  neither  equilateral  nor  equi- 
angular. The  difference  between  a  rhomb  and  a  rhomboid 
will  be  readily  seen  on  examination  of  the  figures. 

Ripe  Honey.— Honey  that  has  been  evaporated  either  in  the 
hive  or  otherwise,  so  as  to  keep  without  souring.  When  fully 
ripe  it  is  capped  or  sealed  (q.  v.) 

ji,)|,,_Whea  one  colony  takes  the  honey  of  another  it  is 
said  to  rob  it. 


G2  t)ICTIONARY    O? 

Royal  Cell. — See  Queeji  Cell. 

Royal  Jelly.  —See  Jelly. 

Saudarach. — An  old  name  for  pollen  or  bee-breafl.  Improper. 

Scout. — It  is  a  general  belief  that  bees,  when  about  to  swanu, 
send  out  scouts  to  find  a  suitable  location  for  the  future  bive. 
This  is  doubted  by  some,  but  the  meaning  of  the  word  is  as  we 
give  it. 

Seal. — To  close  a  cell  by  means  of  a  cap  of  wax,  or  of  wax  and 
pollen;  an  operation  performed  by  the  bees. 

Sealed  Brood. — When  the  larvse  reach  a  certain  stage  of  de- 
velopment, the  cells  in  which  they  have  been  raised  are  sealed 
by  the  bees.  The  brood  remains  in  this  sealed  condition  until  it 
emerges  as  a  fully  developed  bee,  and  during  this  period  is 
called  "  sealed  brood." 

Sealed  Honey. — As  soon  as  honey  is  fuUj^  ripe  the  bees  cap 
or  seal  up  the  cells  in  which  it  is  contained.  It  is  then  called 
sealed  honey. 

Section  I  A   small   frame,  closed  on 

Section  Box  \  top,  bottom  and  ends,  in 
which  the  bees  are  made  to  store  honey. 
The  one-pound  section  is  4^x4^  inches. 
The  two-pound  section  (or  so-called  Prize 
Section)  is  ?>\  x  G}.  The  thickness  or  width 
varies  from  1^  inches  to  2  inches. 

Separator. — A  piece  of  wood  or  metal 
placed    between  the    sections  for  the  i)ur-       rv,^.,.!..  ^.,t  ,..r.  c,.« 
pose  of  preventing  the  queen  Irom  entering  ,^^^y^  „„j._ 

tliem  and  laying  eggs;  and  also  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  the  bees  from  building  the  comb  bej'ond  the 
sides  of  the  Kection. 

Septum.  A  division.  Generally  apjilied  to  (he  vertical  divi- 
sion between  the  two  series  of  cells  in  the  comb  that  is  the 
bottoms  of  the  cells. 

Sheet. — A  cloth  covering  for  the  frames  in  a  hive.  While  a 
qu'lt  is  generally  made  of  two  thicknesses  of  cloth  with  some 
porous  material  between  them,  a  sheet  is  proj)erly  but  one  thick- 
ness. The  sheet  is  used  chiefly  for  the  purjjose  of  preventing 
the  bees  from  ])assing  above  the  frames;  the  more  clumsy  quilt 
is  used  for  preventing  the  escape  of  heat  from  the  brood  cluster. 
See  Frame  Cover,  Qidlt  and  M<tt. 

Slioltz  Candy.— See  Camltj. 

Side  Bar. — A  name  given  by  some  English  writers  to  the  end- 
bars  of  the  frames.    The  term  "side"  bar  is  decidedly  incorrect. 

Side  Boxes. — Honey  boxes  placed  at  the  sides  of  the  frames 
of  comb,  or  at  the  sides  of  the  hive,  in  distinction  from  those 
boxes  which  are  placed  on  the  top  of  the  hive.     The  term  is  not 


PBACTlCAIi    APICULTUKE.  63 

often  applied   to  sections  or   boxes  liun«   at  the  sides  of  the 
tiames  iu   the  brood  cluster,  but  it  is  ditiicult  to  draw  the  line. 

Skep   /  This  word  literally  means   a  basket.     In  some  coun- 

Skip    )  tries     the    bees    are    hived    iu     baskets    lined    with 

straw.     The  term,  as  used    iu   bee-keepiug,  applies   ])roperly  to 

the  old-fashioned  straw  hive  and  similar  contrivances,  and  not 

to  box  or  similar  hives. 

tSimiU  Hive.  —A  term  applied  by  some  English  writers  to  the 
cap  or  super. 

iSlUokc. — Since  the  bee-keejier  has  occasion  to  use  this  term 
frequently,  it  is  well  to  get  at  its  true  meaning,  so  that  we  may 
use  the  words  smoke  {v);  smoke  {n),fume,  fumigate,  etc.,  in  their 
proper  senses.  The  definition  given  by  Webster,  and  followed 
by  the  Imi)erial  Dictionary,  is  so  thoroughly  wrong  that  it  cannot 
be  defended  either  for  scientific  reasons,  or  upon  the  ground  of 
good  usage.  His  definition  is:  "The  exhalation,  visible  vapor 
or  substance  that  escapes  or  is  expelled  from  a  burning  body." 
To  this  he  adds:  "Applied  especially  to  the  volatile  matter  ex- 
pelled from  vegetable  matter,  or  wood,  coal,  peat,  and  the  like, 
the  matter  tixpelled  from  metallic  substances  being  more  gener- 
ally called  fume,  or  fumes." 

"Vapor"  he  defines:  "Any  substance  in  the  gaseous  or  aeri- 
form state,  the  condition  of  which  is  ordinarily  that  of  a  liquid 
or  solid." 

Now,  the  essential  peculiarity  of  smoke  is,  that  it  consists  not 
of  gases  or  vapors  alone,  but  of  gases  or  vajjors,  or  both,  loaded 
with  finely  divided  solid  matter.  In  the  case  of  ordinary  smoke 
used  by  bee-keepers,  it  consists  of  the  gaseous  products  of  com- 
bustion (carbonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide,  etc. )  and  the  vapors  of 
water,  pyroligneous  acid,  etc.,  loaded  with  finely  divided  carbon 
and  the  partially  condensed  vapors  of  imperfect  combustion. 
Smoke,  therefore,  is  simply  the  gaseous  products  of  combustion 
loaded  with  finely  divided  solid  matter.  The  smoke  of  a  soft- 
coal  furnace  is  black;  that  of  a  magnesium  lamp  is  white.  The 
definition  given  by  Worcester  agrees  with  these  obvious  facts, 
and  is  correct. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  term  f?(mes,  does  not  apply  especially  to 
mineral  matter,  as  Webster  states.  We  speak  (and  properly  too) 
of  "the  fumes  of  tobacco;"  "the  fumes  of  whiskey,"  and  the 
word  "fumigation,"  as  applied  to  the  exposure  of  bees  to  the  va- 
pors arising  from  the  slow  combustion  of  puflf-ball,  has  long  been 
an  accepted  term.  The  word  "fumes"  applies  to  pureh'  vaporous 
exhalations,  whether  vegetable  or  mineral,  and,  although  origin- 
ally meaning  the  same  thing  as  smoke,  it  has  now  come  to  have  a 
slightly  different  meaning,  so  that  we  very  properlj'  make  a  dis- 
tinction between  the/(('/'.es  of  tobacco  and  the  smoke  of  tobacco. 

Since  sulphur,  when  burned,  gives  ofiE  only  fumes,  it  is  proper 
to  speak  of  fumigating  bees  with  sulphur;  in  that  case,  we 
should  not  speak  of  smoking  them.     In  the  case  of  puff-ball, 


64  DICTIONAKY    OF 

the  active  agent  seeuis  to  be  a  volatile  narcotic,  and  in  this  case 
too,  the  term  "fumigate"  is  proper,  even  although  the  fumes 
may  be  accompanied  with  smoke. 

Smoke.— K.  To  direct  a  blast  of  smoke  on  bees  for  the  pur- 
jjose  of  subduing  or  controlling  them. 

Smoker. — An  implement  consisting  of  a  small  furnace  in 
■which  rotten  wood,  rags,  or  similar  miiterials  are  burned.  The 
smoke  from  this  slow  combustion  is  blown  on  the  bees  by  means 
of  a  pair  of  bellows  which  is  generally  attached. 

Smyruiail  Bee.— A  race  of  bees  found  in  Western  Asia.  Said 
to  be  quite  distinct  and  very  excellent. 

Spacing  Board.— A  board  with 
grooves  into  which  the  end-bars  or 
bottom-bars  of  the  frames  slide 
and  are  held  firmly  at  the  right 
distances  apart.  They  are  used 
when  hives  with  movable  frames 
are  transported  from  place  to  place. 

Spat. — Unsealed  brood.  This 
word    is    properly  applied    to    the 

young   of ^ the  oyster   and   similar  siuciNu  board. 

shell-fish.     It  is  not  a  desirable  sub- 
stitute for  the  word  brood. 

Species. — To  give  a  good  definition  of  species,  is  a  problem 
that  has  taxed  the  powers  of  the  ablest  scientists.  Fortunately, 
for  our  purpose,  all  questions  of  origin,  etc.,  may  be  safely  dis- 
regarded, and  our  task  is,  therefore,  so  much  the  easier. 

Bufibn  defines  a  species  as  "a  constant  succession  of  individ- 
uahs,  similar  to  and  capable  of  reproducing  each  other."  Cuvier's 
definition  is:  "A  succession  of  individuals  which  re^iroduces 
and  perpetuates  itself."  In  both  cases,  the  power  to  produce 
fertile  offspring  is  a  prominent  feature  of  the  definition.  The 
main  question  of  course  is:  How  far  may  a  series  of  individuals 
de])art  from  the  main  type  and  still  belong  to  the  species? 

The  fertility  of  the  progeny  has  frequently  been  proposed  as  a 
test  of  difference  in  species;  but,  even  with  such  an  apparently 
simple  and  crucial  test,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  decide.  Some 
kinds  interbreed  with  much  more  facility  than  others,  even  when 
their  apparent  differences  are  much  greater.  Thus,  it  has  been 
found  that  wild  and  tame  geese,  when  bred  together,  prodvice  a 
veritable  mule  which  is  unfertile,  while  the  dog  and  the  jackal, 
which  are  apparently  much  less  nearly  related,  breed  together 
freely,  and  the  progeny  is  fertile. 

So  far  as  bees  are  concerned,  it  is  believed  by  the  best  author- 
ities that  all  the  kinds  at  )>resent  under  domestication  are  mere 
varieties  of  one  species.  Even  difference  of  habit  to  the  extent 
of  using  wnx  for  propolis,  as  is  the  cluiracter  of  the  Egyptian 
bee — Apis  ftiscUita  -i\ob&  not  indicate  a  difference  of  species,  for 
it  is  ou  record  that  the  common  honey  bee  has  done  the  same 


PRACTICAL    APICtniTUEE.  65 

tliinp;  wLcn  propolis  could  not  be  had,  so  that  before  coming  to  a 
decision,  it  would  be  at  least  necessary  to  determine  whether  or 
not  the  Egyptian  bee  has  easy  access  to  propolis. 

For  a  list  of  species  see  ^pis  ;  the  principal  races  are  named 
nnder  the  head  Bee,  and  the  extent  of  the  variation  which  exists 
among  them  under  the  heads  Breeding,  Stiaiyi,  Variety. 

Spent  Qiieeu. — A  queen  whose  productive  energies  have  been 
exhausted. 

Speriiiatozooii, — Plural  Spermatozoa. — An  essential  peculiarity 
of  the  spermatic  fluid  of  all  animals,  consists  in  the  presence  of 
elongated  bodies  which  have  active  motion,  even  for  some  time 
after  they  have  quitted  the  living  organism.  From  this  they 
have  been  regarded  by  many  as  animalcules,  but  this  is  an  error. 
They  are,  undoubtedly,  true  products  of  the  formative  action  of 
the  organs  in  which  they  are  found,  and  cannot  be  ranked  in  the 
same  category  with  Animalcules  proi>er.  In  all  the  higher  ani- 
mals, impregnation  takes  place  from  the  Tinion  of  one  or  more 
spermatozoa  with  the  ovum  of  the  female,  and  in  most  cases 
connection  between  the  male  and  female  is  necessary  for  each 
birth.  In  the  birds,  however — notably  the  turkey — one  impreg- 
nation lasts  for  several  eggs,  and  in  some  of  the  insect  families — 
notably  the  ants  and  bees — one  impregnation  lasts  perhaps,  for 
a  lifetime.  In  these  cases  the  males  produce  a  large  quantity  of 
very  concentrated  semen  which  is  received  by  the  female  in  a 
small  sac  and  kept  there  till  wanted.     See  Spermatheca. 

Speriliatozoid. — This  term  was  first  used  in  botany  to  desig- 
nate the  moving  filaments  contained  in  the  antheridia  of  crypt- 
ogams. It  has  since  been  used  by  Flint  and  other  writers  to 
designate  what  are  usually  called  speiimttozoa  (q.  v.);  the  object 
in  using  this  word  probably  being  to  avoid  any  appearance  of 
sanctiouing  the  idea  that  spermatozoa  are  animalcules.  But,  on 
the  ground  that  the  word  s))erinntozoid  has  been  ai)propriated  by 
botanists  to  denote  a  specific  object,  we  prefer  the  word  sperma- 
tozoon. Etymologically,  the  objection  named  above  apjilies 
equally  to  both  words,  but  it  seems  to  us  to  be  of  no  importance. 
The  plural  of  spermatozoid  is  spermatozoids,  not  spermatozoa,  as 
some  have  it. 

Spermatlieca. — A  small  sac  which  is  attached  to  the  oviduct 
and  receives  tlie  spermatic  fluid  of  the  drone  in  the  act  of  copu- 
lation. In  virgin  queens  it  is  empty,  but  after  impregnation  it 
is  well  filled.  It  is  supposed,  that  when  the  egg,  in  passing 
through  the  oviduct,  comes  ojjposite  the  opening  of  the  duct 
from  the  spermatheca,  one  or  two  spermatozoa  are  ejected  so  as 
to  impregnate  it.  The  spermatheca  is  quite  small  just  clearly 
visible  to  the  naked  eye — and  yet  it  has  been  estimated  by 
Leuckart,  that  it  may  contain  25,000,000  spermatozoa. 

Spring  Dwindling'. — In  many  colonies  the  bees  die  off  m 
spring  faster  than  the  young  are  matured.  The  colony,  conse- 
quently, dwindles,   and   sometimes   disappears  altogether.     The 


66 


DlCTlONABt    OF 


cause  of  this  disastrous  state  of  things  has  been  frequently  dis- 
cussed, but  no  satifactory  couclusion  has  been  reached.  In  our 
own  practice  we  have  sought  to  avoid  s^jring  dwindling:  1,  By 
economizing  to  the  utmost  the  natural  heat  of  the  bees.  This 
we  do  by  contracting  the  brood  nest  as  much  as  jiossible,  and 
surrounding  it  with  non-conducting  material  in  the  shape  of 
cushions  and  division  boards.  Also  lessen  ventilation  as  much 
as  possible.  2.  By  supplying  good  wholesome  food — preferably 
sugar  syrup,  for  the  saccharine  portion.  3.  By  taking  great  care 
that  the  queen  is  never  exposed  to  a  low  temperature.  This  can 
only  be  accomplished  by  keeping  the  whole  colony  warm.  If  the 
whole  colony  gets  chilled,  and  the  heat  of  the  cluster  falls,  so 
that  the  queen  gets  chilled,  it  takes  her  a  long  time  to  recover, 
though  she  may  eventually  do  so,  and  again  become  useful. 
4.  By  having  plenty  of  young  but  well-matured  bees  in  the  fall. 
Young  bees  which  have  not  had  several  good  flights  are  worse 
than  useless. 

The  great  remedy  for  all  troubles,  however,  is  to  have  strong 
colonies  with  plenty  of  food. 

S(|iiare. — A  figure  which  has  all  its 
sides  equal,  and  all  its  angles  right 
angles.  The  figure  A,  B,  D,  C,  is  a  square. 
A  square  is  a  rectangle,  but  a  rectangle  is 
Jiot  necessarily  a  square.     See  Rectangle. 

Stall. — An  old  terra  for  a  stock  (q.  v.); 
more  properly,  merely  the  stand.   Obsolete. 

Stand.  -The  base  or  support  upon 
"which  the  hive  stands;  also,  the  location 
of  a  colony.  The  word  is  used  improperly 
for  stock,  colony  and  hive.     See  Stock. 

Staiwl,  Boo.^This  term  is  sometimes 
Tised  as  synonymous  with  apiary,  but  should  not  be  used  in  this 
sense. 

Starter. — A  small  piece  of  comb  or   foundation   put   into  a 
frame  or   section  to   "  start"  the  bees 
comb-building  in  the  right  direction. 
A   section  with  a  "starter"  of  foun- 
dation is  shown  in  the  figure. 

Sterile  (|ueeii.— A  queen  that  does 
not  lay.  Sometimes  queens  lay  eggs 
that  will  not  hatch.  In  this  case  tlio 
queen  can  scarcely  be  said  to  be 
barren  or  sterile,  though  the  eggs  are 
properly  called  xoifertile. 

Stinjr. — The  weapon  by  means  of 
which  bees  defend  themselves. 

Stock.— This  term  can  scarcely  be  dispensed  with,  although  il 


SyUAKK. 


'ftTtTft 

^ 

'l||| 

k*, 

_ 

;i^ 

SECTION  wnn  siAin-KK. 


PRACTICAIi   .VPICriiTURE.  67 

does  not  fiud  a  place  in  S(3me  glossaries,  and  other  writers  con- 
sider it  synoujmous  with  colony,  which  it  certainly  is  not. 
A  colony  is  simj^'y  the  bees  of  any  stock,  whether  a  new  swarm 
or  the  inhabitants  of  a  hive  that  has  been  established  for  years. 
Then  we  have  the  Mve,  which  certaiiilj'  does  not  include  a  colony, 
just  as  a  colony  does  not  necessarily  include  a  hive.*  A  stock, 
however,  includes  colony,  hive,  comb,  stores,  and  all  that  is 
necessary  for  the  normal  existence  of  the  bees,  (Sections, 
crates,  smokers,  etc.,  may  be  necessary  for  the  bee-keeper,  but 
not  for  the  bees,  and  consequently  cannot  be  included.) 

Stock  Hive. — A  term  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  hive  or 
apartment  in  which  the  brood,  etc.,  exists,  as  distinguished  from 
the  "Super"  or  honey-gathering  apartment. 

Stopped. — Capped  (applied  to  cells  containing  honey). 

Stop- wax.  —Propolis. 

Storify. — To  range  hives  over  or  under  each  other. 

Strain. — This  word,  though  characterized  by  Webster  as  ob- 
solete and  rare,  is  one  of  the  most  useful,  expressive,  and  legiti- 
mate words  that  we  have,  and  this  is  shown  by  the  extraordinary 
difficulty  of  finding  a  synouvme  for  it.  When  we  speak  of  a 
strain  of  bees  we  mean  a  series  of  caretully  selected  individuals 
which  have  not  been  erected  into  a  breed,  but,  nevertheless,  show 
certain  peculiarities  which  distinguish  them  from  bees  bred  pro- 
miscuously. The  word  tinds  its  proper  jDlace  in  the  following 
sequence : 

( Variety ) 
Genus — Species —  <  llace      >  — Strain. 
( Breed    ) 

Amongst  stock  breeders  the  word  is  in  common  use,  and 
amongst  certain  very  distinct  breeds  we  have  strains  which  are 
noted  for  certain  peculiarities,  although  these  peculiarities  do 
not  constitute  a  sufficient  difference  to  make  a  new  breed.  Thus, 
we  have  certain  strains  of  particular  breeds  of  cattle,  which 
strains  are  noted  for  large  quantities  of  milk,  while  other  strains 
of  the  same  breed  are  noted  for  their  butter-giving  qualities. 
And  so,  too,  with  bees;  of  the  same  race  we  may  have  difiEerent 
strains — some  noted  for  gentleness,  some  for  great  working 
power,  some  as  being  good  nurses,  some  as  wintering  well,  some 
as  combining  several  good  features. 

Strained  Ht>ney. — This  term  would  properly  apply  to  liltered 
or  clarihed  honey,  but  it  is  generally  used  to  denote  honey  that 
has  been  obtained  from  the  combs  by  squeezing.  It  frequently 
contains  the  juices  of  young  bees,  bee-bread,  etc.,  etc. 

Sng'ar. — Sugar  being  the  main  constituent  of  honey  and  the 
chief  food  of  the  bee,   possesses    special   interest  for  the  bee- 

*  Dealers  and  bee-keepers  sneak  of  sendin?  'colonies"  in  packing  boxes.     JlJ 

jHch  instance^  fhey  certainly  |g  ))ot  jpcludi;  the  hiy^s. 


68  DICTIONARY    OF 

keeper.  Uuder  the  Leads  Candy,  Glucose  and  Honey,  the  reader 
will  tind  interestiug  aud  useful  information  in  regard  to  the 
subject.  The  different  kinds  of  sugar  which  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  honey  are  named  under  the  head  Uoney,  and  possess 
much  interest  to  the  scientific  inquirer;  but,  with  the  excei^tion 
of  caue  sugar,  which  is  used  so  largely  for  feeding  bees,  aud 
glucose  (natural  and  artificial),  it  would  at  present  be  difficult  to 
turn  this  knowledge  to  practical  account.  The  reader  who  is 
curious  on  the  subject  will  find  a  very  complete  resume  of  our 
knowledge  in  regard  to  it  in  the  "Dictionary  of  Chemistry,"  by 
Watts.  A  few  of  the  chief  facts  in  regard  to  cune  sugar  may  be 
of  value  here. 

The  term,  "sugar,"  is  generally  applied  to  the  product  ob- 
tained from  the  cane  aud  the  beet,  aud  from  the  fact  that  it  was 
first  largely  obtained  from  the  caue,  it  is  now  generally  known 
as  cane  swjar.  It  is  found  not  only  in  the  sugar  cane  and  the 
beet  root,  but  in  the  maple  and  in  numerous  other  plants.  The 
juices  of  many  grasses*  contain  it,  and  cases  have  been  recorded 
where  bees  have  obtained  much  food  from  the  stubble  of  wheat, 
corn,  and  other  plants  of  that  kind.  The  nectar  of  the  flowers 
of  the  cactus  contains  cane  sugar  only.  Cane  sugar  is  also 
found  in  varying  proportions  in  the  nectar  of  most  other  plants. 

Cane  sugar  dissolves  in  one-third  of  its  weight  of  cold  water, 
aiul  in  all  proportions  of  boiling  water.  It  has  a  sweetening 
l)ower  of  100;  grape  sugar  having  60.  It  melts  at  320°  Fah.,  and 
on  cooling  forms  the  trans[)arent  substance  known  as  barley 
sugar.  When  heated  to  400°  to  410°  it  loses  water  and  becomes 
brown;  it  is  then  no  longer  capable  of  crystallization,  and  is 
called  carnmd.  Indeed,  caue  sugar  is  so  susceptible  of  change 
by  heat,  that  if  a  colorless  solution  of  it  be  exposed  for  some 
time  to  the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  it  becomes  brown  and 
imrtially  uncrystallizable.  Acids  also  effect  this  change.  Tar- 
taric acid  added  to  a  solution  of  sugar  and  boiled,  prevents  the 
formation  of  crystals,  and  no  crystals  can  be  obtained  even  after 
the  acid  has  been  thoroughly  neutralized  by  chalk  or  carbonate 
of  lime. 

Cane  sugar  is  (with  bee  keepers)  a  favorite  winter  food  for 
bees.  Experience  has  shown  that  it  answers  admirably,  and  its 
composition  shows  that  it  is  entirely  combustible,  leaving  no 
ashes  or  residue,  whether  it  be  biarued  in  the  organism  of  the 
bee  or  the  furnace  of  the  chemist.  It  has  a  greater  heat-giving 
power,  weight  for  weight,  than  other  forms  of  sugar.  But  since 
]iure  sugar  contains  no  muscle-forming  material,  it  may  be 
doubted  if  it  alone  will  sustain  a  colony  of  bees  which  may  be 
compelled  to  exert  themselves  either  for  the  purpose  of  gather- 
ing food,  or  for  that  peculiar  activity  which  they  show  when  ex- 
posed to  great  cold. 

As  bee-keepers  may  have  oeoaslon  to  calculate  the  weights  find 

^  I'b?  Wnc  js  regarded  by  botanists  as  a  gigand?  gr'""' 


PEACTICAIi    APICULTUKE.  69 

bulks  of  given  quantities  of  syrup,  we  give  a  few  figures.  The 
quantity  of  sugar  dissolved  is  100  parts;  the  amount  of  water  by 
weight  is  given  in  the  first  column,  and  the  specific  gravity  of 
the  resulting  syrup  in  the  second  column. 

Parts  of  Water.  Spec.  Gravity. 

50 1-345 

60 1-322 

70 1-297 

80 1-281 

90 1-266 

100 1-257 

120 1-222 

140 1-200 

160 1-187 

180 1-176 

200 1170 

As  water  has  a  specific  gravity  of  1,000,  and  a  gallon  ot  water 
(231  cubic  inches)  weighs  8-339  lbs.,  it  is  easy  to  calculate  the 
weight  of  a  gallon  or  a  quart  of  syrup  containing  any  known 
amount  of  sugar.  Or  from  the  weight  of  a  gallon  or  quart  we 
can  tell  how  much  sugar  it  contains. 

Sulphur. — n.  A  well  known  substance  of  a  yellow  color.  It  is 
one  of  the  chemical  elements  -that  is  to  say,  it  cannot  be  manu- 
factured by  combining  any  other  known  substances.  It  occurs 
as  a  mineral  in  some  volcanic  regions,  especially  Sicily,  and  is 
also  obtained  from  iron  pyrites,  which  is  a  compound  of  iron 
and  sulphur.  It  is  found  in  commerce  in  three  forms:  1.  Crude 
sulphur  or  brimstone,  which  is  simply  the  sulphur  solidified  in 
masses  like  stones.  2.  Roll  sulphur,  which  is  the  preceding,  puri- 
fied and  cast  in  moulds  so  as  to  form  rolls  or  sticks.  3.  A  fine 
powder  prepared  by  distilling  or  subliming  the  common  sulphur 
and  condensing  the  vapor.  It  melts  at  232°  Fahr.,  and  between 
this  point  and  282°  it  is  quite  liquid.  When  still  further  heated 
it  becomes  thick  and  viscid,  but  again  becomes  liquid  jnst  be- 
fore it  vaporizes.  Therefore,  in  melting  sulphur  Jor  making 
matches,  it  should  not  be  made  too  hot.  Sulphur  is  easily  con- 
verted into  vapor  without  being  burned,  and  in  that  case  it  is 
not  so  deadly  as  when  combined  with  oxygen  so  as  to  form  sul- 
phurous acid  (sulphurous  anhydride),  or  in  other  words,  when  it 
is  properly  burned.  In  the  latter  case  it  produces  a  heavy  gas 
of  a  very  penetrating  and  suflbcating  nature  which  effectually 
destroys  all  insect  life,  whether  in  the  form  of  mature  bees, 
moths,  or  the  larvsa  of  either.  This  gas,  however,  quickly  dif- 
fuses in  the  air,  and  does  not  leave  any  taint  on  the  comb  or 
honey  exposed  to  it,  Biit  if  we  expose  honey  to  the  unbnrned 
vapor  of  sulphur,  the  latter  condenses  on  the  comb  or  bopey, 
and  leaves  a  very  disagreeable  taste  and  pdor.  And  as  sulphur 
i.s  not  volatile  at    ordiOftrj'  tepjperptures,  this  tagt^  afitl  ptlpf  pjg 

very  persistent, 


70 


DICTIONAKY    OF 


Sulphur.— V".  To  kill  by  exposure  to  the  fumes  of  burning 
sulphur.  A  process  now  used  by  intelligent  persons  only  for 
destroying  the  moth  in  its  various  stages. 

Super. — A  hive  set  over  another  so  that  the  bees  may  work 
in  it. 

Super,  Bar. — A  bar  super  is  simply  a  case  or  crate  in  which 
the  honey-comb  is  hung  from  bars  (q.  v.)  instead  of  being  built 
in  sections  or  boxes. 

Super,  Divisional. — English  writers   apply  the  term   "divis- 
ional super,"  to  a  set  of  long  sections  reaching  across  the  entire 
width  or  length  of  the  hive,  and   held   together   somewhat  after 
the  manner  of  closed  end  frames. 
Super-llive. — v.  To  set  one  hive  above  another. 
Super-hiving'. — The  opposite  of  Nadir-hiving  (q.  v.) 
Superior   Hive. — The  uppermost  of  a  storified  set. 
Super,  Sectional. — A  super  or  case  placed  over  the  frames  or 
honey  board,  and  containing  sections  (q.  v.) 

Support,  Metal.— A  strip  of  metal  fastened 
to  the  edge  of  a  rabbet  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
porting the  frames.  Improperly  called  a  metal 
rabbet.  A  common  form  of  metal  support, 
bearing  or  runner  (as  some  English  writers  call 
it),  is  shown  in  the  annexed  engraving  at  B.  See 
Rabbet,  where  another  form  is  shown. 


Swarm. — A    new  colony  produced  by  an  old 
stock.     Prime  swarms  consist   of  the  old   queen 
and  an  indefinite  ntimber  of  workers  of  all  ages, 
together  with  some  drones.    After  swarms  (called 
also  second,  third,  etc.,  swarms)  consist  of  one 
MKTAi.  SUPPORT    ^'^  ™°'^®  young  queens  followed  by  workers,  and 
ATTACHED  TO   perhaps  drones.     See  After-swnnn. 
KABBET.  The  term,  colonj',  is  very  apt  to  be  confounded 

with  swarm.  The  difference  is  this:  A  swami  is 
a  young  colony  jwst  detached  from  the  parent  stock.  The  idea 
which  attaches  to  the  word  sicarm  is,  that  either  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  so-called  swarming  fever,  or  by  the  direct  agency  of 
man  in  dividing  them,  the  old  colony  has  split  up  into  two  or 
more  parts,  one  of  which  maintains  the  identity  of  the  old  stock, 
while  the  other  seeks  a  new  home.     See  Stock. 

Swarm,  Artificial.— A  new  colony  formed  from  one  or  more 
o\A  colonies  by  the  direct  agency  of  man. 

Swarminjr  Basket    /  a  box  or  basket  fastened  when  neces- 
Swarming  Box  )  sary  to  the  end  of  a  long  pole,  and  used 

for  taking  swarms  from  a  tree  or  bush  and  hiving  them.  The 
box  or  basket  is  held  directly  beneath  the  swarm,  and  the  bees 
brushed  into  it  with  a  feather,  or  where  the  limb  is  inaccessible 
ft84  b^tt§r  fftcilitieg  ar§  not  at  iiand,  the  Umb  way  be  ehakea  ^g 


PEACnCAL  APICTrLTXIKE.  tl 

that  the  bees  will  fall  into  the  box.  This  maybe  done  in  some 
cases  by  placing  the  upper  end  of  a  stick  against  the  branch  to 
which  the  bees  cling,  and  striking  the  lower  end  sharply  with  a 
mallet.  The  bees  fall  off,  but  very  few  take  wing,  and  there  is  no 
danger  of  killing  the  queen. 

Swariliuig  luimilse. — A  desire  or  tendency  on  the  part  of 
bees  to  swarm.  The  conditions  under  which  it  occurs  are  not 
fully  understood,  but  that  it  is  a  definite  desire  or  impulse, 
nearly  as  much  so  as  the  fever  of  fowls  when  wishing  to  set,  there 
can  be  no  doubt,  and  the  most  effectual  way  of  stopping  it  prob- 
ably, is  to  gratify  it  in  appearance  at  least.  The  honey-extractor 
is  said  to  keep  it  down  very  effectually,  but  cases  have  been 
known  in  which  even  this  failed.  Query:  Has  it  any  con- 
nection with  a  greatly  developed  wax-secreting  condition? 
If  so,  the  most  efi'ectual  method  of  subduing  it  would  be  to  set 
the  bees  at  work  building  new  comb  for  a  few  days,  as  well  as 
giving  them  room  for  new  stores  of  honey. 

Swarm,  Late. — A  swarm  which  comes  off  after  the  usual 
swarming  season  is  past. 

Swarm,  Natural. — A  new  colony  formed  by  the  instinct  of 
the  bees  without  the  direct  interference  of  man.  Such  opera- 
tions as  feeding  to  promote  brood-rearing  and  to  excite  the 
swarming  impulse,  do  not  constitute  direct  interference. 

Syriau  Bee. — A  race  of  bees  found  in  Syria.  Frequently  con- 
founded with  the  bees  found  in  the  country  to  the  soiith  of 
Syria.     See  Holyland  Bee. 

Take  Up,  To. — To  destroy  bees  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the 
comb  and  honey. 

Tested  Queen.— See  Queen,  Tested. 

Tier  Up,  To. — To  place  one  hive  on  the  top  of  another  so  as 
to  give  the  bees  more  room.  The  operation  may  be  repeated 
several  times. 

Top  Box. — A  box  placed  on  the  top  of  a  hive  for  surplus 
honey. 

Transfer. — To  change  the  comb  and  bees  of  a  stock  from  one 
hive  to  another.  The  term  transferring  has,  however,  come  to 
have  a  special  significance,  and  is  commonly  used  to  denote 
the  operation  of  changing  bees  and  comb  from  box-hives  to 
movable  comb  hives,  or,  indeed,  to  change  the  comb  from  one 
frame  to  another.  And  if  any  one  could  be  found  who  changed 
his  comb  back  to  the  box  hive,  this  operation  also  would  be 
called  transferring.  A  quantity  of  comb  transferred  to  a  frame 
is  shown  in  the  illustration  on  the  next  page.  The  comb  is  held 
in  place  in  this  frame  by  means  of  wires,  clasps  and  slats. 

There  is  another  operation,  however,  in  daily  use  in  extensive 
apiaries,  and  that  is  the  transposing  of  frames  and  bees  from  one 
hive  to  another.     This  operation,  strictly  speaking,  should  not 


n 


MCtlONABT    OF 


be  called  *'  transferring  "    but  transposbig  or  re-hlving.    See  Re- 
hive. 


COMB   TRANSKKKKEl)   TO    FRAMK. 


Transferring-  Board. — A  board  with  grooves  nsed  in  trans- 
ferring. The  frame  and  comb  lie  flat  on  the  board,  and  the  wires 
or  slats,  seen  in  the  previous  figure,  lie  in  the  grooves  so  as  not 


TRANSFERRING   BOARD. 

to  be  pressed  into  the  comb.  In  the  figure  the  grooves  are  nini- 
ply  spaces  between  narrow  boards  or  shits  which  arc  nailed  to 
two  cross  pieces. 

Transpose. — When  frames  and  bees  are  moved  liodily  from 
the  shell  or  outer  case  of  one  hive  to  that  of  another,  the  term 
"transpose  "  might  be  used.  In  (his  waj'  we  would  avoid  con- 
fusing the  simple  operation  of  changing  boxes  with  the  more 
elaborate  and  diflScult  one  generally  known  as  "  transferring." 

To  transpose  a  colony  is  one  thing,  however,  and  to  transpose 
frames  of  comb  is  another.  The  latter  may  be  i)erformed  in  the 
same  hive  by  simply  re-arranging  the  frames.  As  a  single  word, 
denoting  the  changing  of  a  colony  from  one  hive  to  another, 
without  the  operation  of  transferring,  we  prefer  the  term  re-hive. 

Treble       j 

Trinle         t  ^'-  '^^  ^^^  ^  third  hive  or  box  to   two  that  were 
Triplicate  )  P>'e'«'io"sly  occupied  by  one  colony. 


PRACTICAL    APICULTURE.  73 

Triplet. — A  stock  that  Las  three  Lives  or  stories. 

Twin-stock. — A  word  wLich  Las  been  borrowed  from  the 
Germau.     It  signifies  a  Live  containing  two  colonies. 

Uucnpping. — To  remove  tLe  caps  from  the  cells  of  sealed  or 
capped  iiouey.  This  is  always  done  before  the  combs  are  placed 
in  the  extractor. 

Unfertile. — This  term  may  be  applied  to  either  queens  or  eggs. 
It  means  incapable  of  producing  young.     See  Sterile. 

Unicomb  Hive. — A  hive  Laving  only  one  comb,  and  generally 
with  glass  sides.     An  observable  Live. 

Unite. — To  make  one  colony  out  of  two  or  more. 

Uniting'  Spirit. — A  mixture  of  spirit  of  peppermint,  water 
and  honey  used  for  sprinkling  bees  to  give  them  the  same  odor, 
so  that  they  may  be  united  more  easily.     Dzierzon. 

Unqiieen. — To  remove  a  qiieen  and  leave  the  colony  queenless. 
This  term  saves  much  circumlocution. 

Unripe  Honey. — Honey  from  which  the  water  has  not  been 
sufficiently  evaporated. 

Untested  Queen. — A  queen  whose  progeny  has  not  been  ex- 
amined or  tested. 

Variety. — Any  form  or  condition  of  structure,  under  a  species, 
which  differs  in  its  characteristics  from  those  typical  to  the 
species,  as  in  color,  shape,  size,  and  the  like,  aud  which  is 
capable  either  of  perpetuatiug  itself  for  a  period,  or  of  being 
perpetuated  by  artificial  means;  also,  any  of  the  various  forms 
under  a  species,  meetiug  the  conditions  mentioned.  Amongst 
naturalists,  a  form  characterized  by  an  abnormity  of  structure, 
or  any  difiference  from  the  type,  that  is  not  capable  ot  being  per- 
petuated through  two  or  more  generations,  is  not  called  a  variety. 
Varieties  differ  from  species  in  that  any  two,  however  unlike, 
will  mutually  propagate  indefinitely,  unless  they  are  in  their 
nature  unfertile,  as  some  varieties  of  rose  and  other  cultivated 
plants;  in  being  the  result  of  climate,  food,  or  other  extrinsic 
conditions  or  influences,  but  generally  by  a  sudden,  rather  than 
a  gradual,  development;  and  in  tending  in  most  cases  to  lose 
their  distinctive  peculiarities  when  the  individuals  ai'e  left  to  a 
state  of  nature,  and  especially  if  restored  to  the  conditions  that 
are  natural  to  typical  individuals  of  the  species. —  Webster. 

Varieties  differ  from  races  and  breeds  in  the  suddenness  of 
their  appearance.  The  development  of  a  race  or  breed  is  grad- 
ual— often  the  result  of  agencies  which  have  acted  for  hundreds 
of  years. 

A  variety  also  differs  from  a  race  in  that  the  latter  tends  more  and 
more  to  establish  its  distinctive  features,  and  loses  its  tendency 
to  "cry  back  "  (q.  v.),  consequently,  a  variety  is  generally  con- 
fined within  naiTower  limits  than  a  race.     And  it  differs  from  a 


74 


DtCTlONAKTf    Of 


"breed"  not  only  in  the  poiutd  just  mentioned,  but  also  in  the 
fact  that  the  latter  is  always  to  a  certain  extent  artificial.  lu 
short,  a  variety  partakes  largely  of  the  nature  of  a  "sport,"  as  it 
is  called  by  horticulturists. 

The  term  variety,  however,  is  iised  almost  wholly  by  scientific 
men — naturalists  in  every  department.  Practical  stock-breeder.s, 
whether  of  Durham  cattle  or  of  bees,  use  the  words  race  and 
breed. — See  Species,  Straiii. 

Veil,  Bee. — A  veil  used  by  bee-keepers  to  protect  them  from 
the  stings  of  the  insects.     There  are  different  methods  of  ar- 


ranging the  veil,  one  of  the  best  being  that  shown  in   the  en- 
graving, copied  from  Qniuby's  work  on  Bee  Keeping. 

Ventilate. ^ — To  change  the  air  in  any  place.  In  the  hive  ven- 
tilation is  effected  in  two  ways:  Ndtnrally,  when  the  bees  by  the 
action  of  their  wings  produce  currents  of  air  which  penetrate  to 
every  part  of  the  hive;  Artificially,  when  the  bee-keeper  estab- 
lishes a  current  of  air  by  means  of  suitably  arranged  openings. 
Artificial  ventilation  in  winter  has  been  extolled  on  the  one  hand 
as  the  greatest  aid  in  safely  wintering  colonies,  while  on  the 
other  it  has  been  condemned  as  contrary  to  the  habits  of  the 
bee,  and  the  probable  cause  of  more  losses  than  any  other 
device. 

Virgin  ('oinh. — Comb  which  has  been  used  only  once  for 
honey  and  never  for  brood. 

Virgin  Honey. — Honey  taken  from  virgin  comb  (q.  v.)  By 
some  this  term  is  applied  only  to  the  honey  gathered  and  stored 
by  a  swarm  of  the  same  season  that  the  honey  is  taken.  Some 
authors  define  virgin  honey  as  that  which  drains  from  the  comba 


PKACTICAIi    APIOUIiTUKE.  75 

without  pressure  or  heat,  and  this   seems  to  be  the  definition 
accepted  by  most  of  our  standard  authorities, 

Yirglii  Queen. — See  Queen,  Vinjin. 

Virgiu  Wax. — Wax  from  virgin  comb  (q.  v.)  Virgin  wax  is 
frequently  prescribed  in  the  older  recipes  for  various  industrial 
purposes,  but  with  our  modern  methods  and  systems  of  purify- 
ing wax,  any  bright  yellow  wax  is  as  good  as  what  is  known  as 
virgin  wax. 

Warranted  (^ueen. — See  Queeyi,  Warranted. 

Wax. — When  "wax,"  simply,  is  spoken  of,  beeswax  is  always 
understood.  In  this  jjlace  vegetable  wax  and  mineral  wax  have 
no  interest  for  us  except  as  adulterants,  which  are  to  be  avoided. 
Wax  is  secreted  by  the  bees,  is  formed  into  scales  in  the  wax- 
pockets  (q.  v.),  and  is  thence  taken  into  the  mouth,  where  it  is 
kneaded  with  saliva  until  sufficiently  plastic  to  be  used  in  biiild- 
ing  the  cells.  There  are  two  kinds  of  wax  in  market — common 
beeswax  and  Audaquies  wax,  which  is  produced  by  a  small  bee 
found  on  the  plains  of  Orinoco,  above  the  Magdalena  Eiver. 
Like  the  Apis  dorsata,  these  bees  attach  their  combs  to  the  limbs 
of  trees.  This  wax  has  a  rather  higher  melting  point  than  com- 
mon beeswax,  and  hence  if  it  could  be  procured  in  quantity  and 
should  prove  sufficiently  plastic,  it  might  prove  exceedingly 
useful  in  the  manufacture  of  foundation.  Lewy  gives  its  specific 
gravity  as  -917,  and  its  melting  point  as  170°  Fahr. 

Common  beeswax  has  a  specific  gravity  of  -960  to  '965,  and  a 
melting  point  of  145°  to  150°  Fahr.  The  jjrocess  of  bleaching 
raises  the  specific  gravity  to  -990,  and  the  melting  point  to  155° 
Fahr.  At  85°  wax  becomes  plastic,  so  as  to  be  easily  moulded  or 
kneaded,  and  at  this  temperature  pieces  which  are  pressed  into 
contact  unite  into  one  mass.  Proctor  says,  that  at  this  tempera- 
ture "  its  behavior  while  worked  between  the  finger  and  thumb 
is  characteristic."  A  piece  the  size  of  a  pea  being  worked  in  the 
hand  till  tough  with  the  warmth,  then  placed  upon  the  thumb 
and  forcibly  stroked  down  with  the  forefinger,  curls  i:p,  follow- 
ing the  finger,  and  is  marked  by  it  with  longitudinal  streaks. 

Wax  is  freed  from  honey  and  adhering  impurities  by  being 
melted  in  water,  to  which  vinegai',  alum,  or  a  little  nitric  aciii 
has  been  added.  For  the  best  methods  of  purifying  and  bleach- 
ing wax,  see  article  Wax  in  the  forthcoming  "  Treasury  of  Prac- 
tical Information." 

The  adulterations  of  wax  are  various  powders — starch,  clay, 
etc.;  resin;  tallow  and  suet;  and  lastly,  paraffin.  Powders  may 
be  separated  by  disolving  the  wax  in  turpentine,  when  the  pow- 
ders will  be  left.  Resin  may  be  detected  by  its  peculiar  terebin- 
thinate  (turpentine)  taste,  and  by  its  solubility  in  cold  alcohol, 
in  which  wax  is  insoluble.  When  resin  is  present  the  fracture 
of  the  wax  is  shining  instead  of  granular.  Greasy  matter  is 
f  ftgily  detected  by  the  unctuous  feel  and  disagreeable  taste.  Wax 


76 


DICTIONAKY    OF 


WAX  POCKETS. 


^■ 


■^ 


■with  which  paraffiu  has  been  mixed  melts  at  a  temperature  too 
low  to  allow  it  to  be  used  for  fouudation.  The  wax  may  be 
separated  by  a  stroug  solution  of  alkali,  which  has  no  effect 
whatever  on  paraffin. 

Wax  Extractor. — A  piece  of  apparatus  for  separating   wax 
from  other  impurities,  such  as  bee-bread,  dead  bees,  etc. 
Wax  Moth.— See  3Ioth. 

W^ax  Pockets. — Small  cavities  found  on  the 
under  side  of  the  bee,  in  which  the  secreted  wax 
is  collected  and  kept  till  required  for  use.  In  the 
honey  bee  these  pockets  are  found  under  the  ab- 
domen, and  there  are  eight  of  them — fotir  on  each 
side.  The  stingless  bees  of  South  America  collect 
the  wax  on  the  back. 

Weddiilf?    Excursion)      When  the  queen  leaves 
Weddinj?   Flij?lit  \  the  hive  for  the  purpose 

of  meeting  the  drones,  she   is   said  to  take  her 
wedding  flight.     Also  called  marriage  flight. 

Wide  Frames. — Frames  which  are  so  wide  that  sections  may 
be  placed  in  them  and  hung  in 
the  hive.  The  term  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred to  broud  frame,  as  the  latter 
is  apt  to  be  mistaken  (especially 
wheu  written)  for  brood  frame. 
The  figure  shows  a  wide  frame 
with  sections  hung  in  a  hive. 

Wild  Bees. — These  differ  in  no 
respect  from  the  bees  originally 
kept  in  hives,  except  in  the  fact 
that   they   have    taken    up    their 

abode  in  some  natural  cavity  in  tree,  rock,  or  even  the  ground. 
This  will  be  seen  at  once  when  we  remember  that  most  of  tlie 
colonies  found  in  the  woods  have  absconded  from  some  apiary. 
Even  pure  Italians  have  been  found  in  the  condition  of  wild 
bees. 

Wind  Breaks. — Fences  or  rows  of  trees  so  arranged  as  to 
break  the  force  of  the  prevailing  winds. 

Wine,  Honey.— Mead. 

Wintering.  -^During  nearly  five  mouths  of  the  year  (from 
November  1st  to  April  1st)  bees  in  northern  latitudes  are  con- 
fined to  their  hives,  often  for  months  at  a  time.  During  this 
period,  if  neglected,  they  are  exposed  to  cold,  to  the  use  of  un- 
suitable food,  and  even  to  actual  starvation.  The  beekeeper,  by 
l)roper  care,  proteotw  them  fi'om  oold,  provides  them  with  a  suf- 
fioienoy  of  good  food,  "Utl  iu  other  respects  sees  that  thoy  are 
guarded  from  those  evil  Influences  against  which  they  themselves 


WIDE   FRAMES    AND    SECTIONS, 


PKACTICAIi    APICriiTUKE.  77 

I 

wintering  of  bees,  as  at  present  practiced,  is  not  conducted 
so  as  to  secure  i;niformly  successful  results,  and  he  who  will 
place  it  on  a  sound  scientific  basis  will  add  millions  to  the 
annual  income  of  the  country. 

Winter  Passag^es. — Passages  made  through  the  combs  so  that 
the  bees  can  pass  to  the  different  combs  without  having  to  go 
under  or  around  them.  As  the  combs,  where  not  covered  by  bees, 
are  very  cold — often  frozen — in  winter,  any  bee  that  attempts  to 
crawl  over  them  is  lost,  while  if  she  could  go  through  the  combs, 
without  leaving  the  cluster,  she  might  be  able  to  reach  a  supply 
of  food  and  so  sustain  life.  To  enable  her  to  do  this,  it  is  the  prac- 
tice of  some  of  our  best  apiarists  to  cut  holes  in  the  combs  about 
two  or  three  inches  below  the  top  of  the  frames,  and  as  the  bees 
are  apt  to  fill  these  holes  up,  many  insert  a  tin  thimble  in  them 
to  keep  them  open.  We  object  to  tin,  or  any  metallic  substance 
amongst  the  bees  in  winter,  and  greatly  prefer  a  wooden  tube 
made  by  rolling  a  thick  shaving  round  a  roller,  and  tying 
it  with  very  fine  wire.  The  wood  being  a  poor  conductor  of 
heat  is  greatly  better  than  tin.  Such  thimbles  should  be  in- 
serted in  the  foundation — thus  saving  the  bees  the  labor  of 
building  comb  which  is  to  be  afterwards  cut  out.  At  least  four 
frames  in  every  hive  should  have  these  thimbles.  If  they  should 
come  into  extensive  use  they  could  be  easily  and  cheaply  turned 
out  of  some  firm  wood.  The  internal  diameter  need  not  be 
more  than  half  an  inch,  and  they  .should  be  quite  thin.  We 
have  tried  paper  and  pasteboard,  but  the  bees  gnaw  them.  We 
greatly  prefer  two  or  three  of  these  small  holes  to  one  large  one. 
They  should  be  at  least  three  or  four  inches  apart.  Where  tin 
tubes  are  used  they  should  be  heated  and  dipped  in  melted  wax, 
so  that  the  metal  surface  may  be  completely  covered. 

Hill's  device  (q.  v. )  is  intended  to  answer  the  same  purjjose, 
but  we  do  not  think  it  quite  as  efficient.  Perhaps  both  would  be 
best. 

Wired  Foundation. — See  Foundation. 

Wired  Frames. — See  Frames. 

Wolf's  Bladder.— Puff-  ball. 

Worker  Bees. — These  are  the  undeveloped  females  that 
gather  the  honey  and  pollen,  secrete  wax,  raise  the  brood,  de- 
fend the  hive,  and  perform  all  the  other  active  duties  of  bee-life, 
with  the  exception  of  laying  eggs. 

Worker  Egars. — Properly  this  term  should  signify  eggs  laid 
by  workers.  More  frequently  it  is  used  (improperly,  we  think) 
to  signify  eggs  that  will  produce  workers.     See  Egg. 

Worker,  Fertile    )  a  worker  whose  ovaries  have   been  so  far 
Worker,  Laying   f  developed  that  she   lays  eggs.     As   these 

workers  are  never  impregnated,  their  progeny  are  always  drones. 

The  teim   "fertile"  worker  has  b§§P  objected  to,  bwt  it  ia 

Btrictljr  propefj 


78  DICTIONARY    OF 

Worm. — A  common  but  very  improper  name  for  larva  (q.  v.) 
of  bees  or  motb.s.  Worms  never  cbange  to  flies,  bees,  or  butter- 
flies.    Tbey  are  not  insects. 

Worms. — TLe  larvje  of  the  bee-moth  are  frequently,  but  im- 
properly, so  called.  Indeed,  when  "worms"  are  spoken  of  by 
the  ordinary  beekeeper,  the  larvae  of  the  bee-moth  are  almost 
always  meant. 


PBACTICAIi  APICXHiXORE.  79 


A^PI^ENDIX. 


Apiolog'y. — A  discourse  about  bees.  The  literature  of  bee- 
keeping. 

Apist. — A  bee-keeper  {inelegant). 

Apistical. — Kelating  to  bees  or  bee-keeping. 

Artificial  Cuiiib. — It  is  no  wonder  that  the  idea  that  artificial 
comb  is  a  regular  article  of  manufacture  should  take  a  deep  hold 
of  the  popular  mind,  when  so  many  journals  and  books  speak  of 
it  as  an  accomplished  fact.  In  the  "Mutual  Admiration  So- 
ciety's" Cyclopaedia*  we  are  gravely  told  that  Dr.  John  Long  has 
invented  a  machine  "that  turns  out  combs  with  cells,  rivalling, 
if  not  excelling,  the  natural  product"  !!!  This  will  bring  a 
smile  to  the  faces  of  readers  of  back  volumes  of  the  American 
Bee  Journal. 

In  noticing  the  substitutes  for  comb  we  ought  not  to  omit 
mention  of  the  fact  that  it  was  by  transferring  the  larvsB  to  glass 
tubes,  made  in  the  form  of  cells,  that  Huber  was  enabled  to 
watch  the  process  of  cocoon-spinning.  See  "  Nouvelles  Observa- 
tions sur  les  Abeilles."  F&v  Francois  Huber.  Geneve  1814.  Vol.1., 
p.  221. 

Frames. — The  following  comparison  of  the  comb-surface  ex- 
posed by  completely  filled  frames  of  the  various  sizes  in  use  is 
iuteresting.  I  have  assumed  that  the  top  bar  is  f  of  an  inch 
thick;  the  end  and  bottom  bars  \  inch  each.  In  frames  as  made 
by  some  makers  these  dimensions  vary  slightly,  but  by  actual 
measurement  I  find  that  the  sizes  I  have  given  are  not  far  out  of 
the  way.  The  Standard  Frame  of  the  British  Bee-Keepers'  As- 
sociation is  14  inches  long  by  8^  inches  deep,  the  top  bar  being 
f  of  an  inch  thick,  and  the  end  bars  (or  side  bars,  as  our  cousins 
call  them,  not  very  properly)  \  of  an  inch.  This  gives  exactly 
three-quarters  of  a  square  foot,  and  is  the  smallest  frame  in  use 
for  any  except  nucleus  hives.  Of  coiirse,  in  order  to  get  the 
entire   surface   of  comb  exposed  (as  in  estimating  amoiant  of 

*  Johnson's — So  called  because'  each  of  tlie  several  hundred  editors  and  con- 
tributors had  his  "biography"  published  in  it.  This^  of  course,  left  no  room  for 
any  account  of  such  men  as  Langstrolh,  Dzierzon,  Wagner,  and  many  others 
whose  work  really  deserves  recognition.  Even  Lawes,  who  has  probably  donf 
more  than  any  other  living  man  for  the  Science  of  Agriculture,  and  whose  name  ii 
familiar  to  every  studeni  of  the  subject,  is  not  so  much  as  mentioned. 


80  DICTIOUAET    OP    PRACTICAL    APICUIiTTJRti. 

brood),  the  quantities  given  in  tlie  table  must  be  iloubled,  kg  ns 
to  include  both  sides. 

Area  in  Area  in 

Frame.  Square  Inche-i.  Square  Feet. 

Quinby — open  end 191  1  '320 

closed  end 193  1-340 

Langstroth — Simplicity 14556  1010 

Standard 143-43  -995 

-      Adair 135-47  -940 

American 130-75  -908 

Gallup lU-22  -793 

British  Standard 108  "750 

FraiiiP,  Broad-shouldered.— A  frame  with  the  top  bar  maae 
^videat  each  end  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  the  frames  a  proper 
distance  apart. 

Frame,  Cold. — A  frame  which  runs  lengthwise  of  the  hive — 
that  is,  having  the  end  bars  against  the  entrance. 

Frame,  Warm. — A  frame  which  runs  across  the  hive — that  is, 
having  the  bottom  bar  parallel  with  the  entrance.  Why  it  was 
called  a  "  warm  "  frame  we  do  not  know,  except  perhaps  that  it 
was  thought  that  the  outer  frames,  with  their  sheets  of  comb, 
would  act  as  a  protection  from  cold  draughts  of  air.  See  Frame, 
Cold,  Supra. 

Fungicide.  —  A  destroyer  of  fungi.  A  teriu  applied  to  certain 
chemicals  which  have  powerful  antiseptic  qualities,  due,  it  is 
supposed,  to  the  fact  that  they  are  very  destructive  to  minule 
fungi.  Prominent  among  these  chemicals  are  borax,  salicylic 
acid,  sulphur,  sulphurous  acid,  etc. 

Lll^S. — (Scotch  and  Provincial  English  for  ears).  The  arms 
of  frames  are  sometimes  inelegantly  so  called. 

Midrib. — A  term  sometimes  improperly  used  for  septum  (^.i'.) 

Runner. — A  thin-edged  bearer  or  support  for  the  arms  of  the 
frames     The  term  is  not  a  good  one. 

Subtend. — This  term  has  been  used  (not  very  i)roperly)  fo 
denote  thei^lacing  of  one  hive  tinder  another. 

Swarm. — v.  This  term  is  used  l)otli  in  reference  to  the  old 
colony  and  the  new  swarm.  A  stock  is  said  to  swarm  when  it 
throws  off  a  new  colony,  and  a  new  colony  is  said  to  sicarm  out 
when  it  leaves  the  parent  stock. 


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Rearef  of  Italiao  and  Syrian  Queen  Bees, 

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Our  "  Economy"  (ranlon  Enginois  trno  to  namo.  Wo  ofTer  it  five  to 
seven  dollars  cheaper  tliaii  any  other  jjarden  enjjine  in  the  market. 
Size,  .W  X  14  X  22.  Capacity.  40"  gallons.  Price  with  tliree  leetdt  dis- 
charjje  hose  and  "  Boss"  nozzle,  $20.00. 

(Jardeners.  friiit-irrowers  and  nurserymen  will  aiipreciate  this  En- 
{line,  which,  inscasiins  ofdi-outh,  enables  them  to  keep  their  ixrnwinir 
crops  Irom  sulVcrinir  li>r  want  of  walei'.  II  can  lie  m(>\ed  ahont  easily, 
and  for  sprinklinii  iawns  and  flower  j^ardens,  and  wetlinjj;  down  dnsty 
streets,  will  lie  I'onnd  very  vahiahle. 

J80"  Bee-keeiiersean  liy  it  control  their  swarms  completely,  as  from 
the  force  with  which  it  tlirows  a  stream,  the  bees  can  be  reached  at 
distances  where  the  ordinary  "sipiirl  jiiins"  are  powerless. 

Send  lor  Cataloj^ue. 

TESTllMONI-VLS. 

Camkuia.  Dec.  30, 1SS2. 

FiEiJ)  FoKciO  Pump  Company. — Genllmien  :-T\ush\si  season  I  nsed 
one  of  yonr  Force  Pumjis  to  s])ray  my  jiear.  phim  and  cherry  trees 
with  a  weak  solution  of  Paris  li'reen.  1  fonnd  thai  it  ^iically  imjiroved 
the  tViiil  and  rendered  it  almost  entirely  free  from  worms.  1  am  satis- 
fied that  it  was  perfectly  snfe  to  use  tlie  solution,  as  I  used  the  fruit, 
and  found  It  superioi'  lii  what  was  usually  raised  on  th«'  sann- trees. 

\y.  1).  ROBINSON. 

LocKPoitT,  N.  Y.,  Aua-.  s.  iss,-?. 
FiKi.n  Force  Pump  Co. — Genls-'—An  to  how  I  like  my  Force  Pump, 
will  say  lean,  witli  50  feet  of  hose,  throw  a  steady  stream  over  my 
two  story  liouse,  and   reirar(l  it  as  a  very  jrood  and  cheap  protection 
against  fire.     It  gives  i)erfect  satisfaction'.     Yours, 

O.  C.  WRTCHT. 

Address  FIELD  FORCE  PUMP  CO.,  Locki.ort,  N.  Y. 


BEES 


At   $7.00  per  Colony, 

IN  ONE-STORY  SIMPLICITY  HIVE,  EIGHT  COMBS, 
DIVISION  BOARD,  AND  CLOTH. 


ITALIAN  QUEENS, 

At  75  cents  each,  by  mail, 


AFTER  JUNE    1st. 


The  Beeswood  Queen  Apiary, 

^V^a.sliiiiartoii     .A.>  inline. 


TVEIW^^I^Ii:,    TV.  J. 


W.    EARLE    CASS. 


W.  T.    FALCONER, 

MANUFACTURER  OF 

APIARIAN  SUPPLIES. 

A  specialty  made  of  all  styles  of  the  Simplicity  Hivk, 
including  the  "  Falcon  "  Chaff  Hive,  with  movable 
npper  story,  which  is  growing  rapidly  in  favor,  as 
offering  superior  advantages  for  wintering  and 
handling  bees  at  all  seasons,  which  is  at- 
tested by  the  thousands  now  in  use. 

This  hive  is  furnished  with  one  or  both  sides  movable, 
at  an   additional   cost  of  15c.   per  side. 


manufacturer  of 


FOUNDATION, 

And  ]>ea.lei*  in  a,ll  Kinds  of 

Appliances  for  the  Apiary. 


Send  for  Illustrated  Price  List,  Free, 


W.    T.    FALCONER, 

JAMESTOWN     N.   T. 


I 

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WHY   NOT   BUT   YOUR 

QUEENSlBEES 

Direct  from  the  Breeder? 

25  CENTS  SAVED  IS  25  CENTS  MADE. 

If  you  wish  to  purcliase  Italian  Bees  or  Queens  early 
in  tlie  spriug,  and  wish  a  bargain,  you  should  send  for 
my  new  Price  List.     Queens  ready  in  April.     Address 

W.   S.   CAUTHEN, 

Pleasant  Hill,  Lancaster  Co.,  S.  C. 

MUTH'S 

HONEY  EXTRACTOR 

Is  Second  to  None  in  tie  Martel. 

SQUARE  GEAllS,  HONEY   JARS,  TIN  BUCKETS, 

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SECTIONS,  ETC.,  ETCo 

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S,  Ki  Cor.  Freeman  and  Central  Aves.,  Cincinnati,  0, 


Twentif-seventh   Edition.  March,  1884. 

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NOW    READY. 


Second,  ana  Enlargeii  Edilion, 


The  Steel  Square 


AND   ITS    USES. 


By    F'RKJJ.    T.    HOUG^iSON. 


This  is  tlio  only  work  ou  The  Steel  Square  and  Its  Uses  ever 
published.  It  is  Thorough,  Exhaustive,  Clear,  anil  Easily  Uuilerstood. 
Coiifoiuidiug  tciius  and  scientific  phrases  have  been  religiously  avoided 
where  possible,  and  everything  in  the  book  has  been  made  so  plain  that 
a  boy  twelve  years  of  age,  possessiug  ordinary  intelligence,  can  under- 
stand it  from  end  to  end. 

The  Nev?  Edition  is  Illustrated  with  over  Seventy-five  Wood  cuts, 
showing  how  the  Sijnare  may  bo  used  for  solving  almost  every  jiroblem 
in  the  whole  Art  of  Carpentry. 

The  following  synojjsis  of  the  contents  of  the  woik  will  give  some 
idea  of  its  character  and  scope. 


— History  of  the  "Square." — Descrip- 
tion, with  Explanation-^  of  the  Rules,  F"ig- 
ures,  Scales,  and  Divisions  shown  on  good 
Squares. 

— Bnice  Rules.  Octagonal  Scale,  Board, 
Plank  and  Scantling  Rules,  fully  explained 
and  described. 

— How  to  lay  out  Rafters,  Hips,  Jack- 
Rafters,  Purlins,  Bevel  Works,  etc  ,  etc. 

—  Backing  for  Hip';,  Lengths  and  Bevels 
of  Valley  Rafteis.  Laying  out  Stairs  and 
Strings. 

— How  to  describe  Circles,  F.llipses, 
Parabolas  and  other  figures,  with  the 
Square. 

— How  to  obtain  Bevels  for  Hoppers 
and  all  kinds  of  Splayed  Work  and  Spring 
Mouldings,  by  the  Square. 

— Bisecting  Circles,  Proportion  of  Cir- 
cles,    Division    of     Widths,     Bisection     of 


Angles,  Diminishing  Sliles,  Centering 
Circle.s,  etc.,  etc. 

— Theoretical  Rafters,  Cuts  for  Mitre 
Boxes,  Measurement  of  Surl.ices,  inclMdlng 
Painting,  Pl.nstering,  Shingling,  Siding, 
Flooring,  Rough  Boarding,  Tiiming  and 
Roofing. 

— Rules  for  describing  Octagons  and 
Polygons  of  every  description,  and  how 
to  find  their  angles  and  areas. 

— Rules  for  finding  the  Ion  gths  of  Rafters 
and  Hips  of  Irregular  Koofs,  Cuts  for 
Equal  and  Unequal  Mitres,  Trusses  and 
Bevel  Timber  Work, 

— The  Development  of  Hip  and  Curved 
Roofs:  Veranda  Rafters,  Straight  and 
Curved;  Hopper  Cuts  of  all  kinds.  Angle 
Corner-pieces,  Splayed  Work  for  Gothic 
Heads,  etc.,  etc.,  and  many  other  things 
usefnl  to  the  Operative  Mechanic. 


Handsoiiiely  Bound  in   <'lotli  with  Oilt  Title, 
Price  ON£  DOJLLAK, 


PRACTICAL  CARPENTRY. 

BErXtr  A  GUIDE  TO  THE 

Correct  TV^orking^  and  Laying  Out  of  all  kinds 
of  Carpenters'  and  Joiners'  IrVork. 

AVJtli  the  Solutions  of  the    Various  Problems  in  Hip-Koofs,   Gothic 
Work,  Centering,  Splayed  Work,  Joints  and  Jointing,  Hing- 
ing, Dovetailing,    Mitering,  Timber    Splicing,  Hopper 
Work,    Skylights,  Raking   Mouldings,  Circwlar 
AVork,  Etc.,  Etc. 

TO  WHICH  IS  PREFIXED  A  THOROUGH  TREATISE  ON 

'CARPENTER'S    GEOMETRY." 

ILLUSTRATED    BT    OVER    300    EyGRAVIXOS. 


By  FRED.  T.  HODGSON, 

Author  of    "The  Steel   Square    and   Its    Uses,"    "The   Builder's   Guide 

AND    Estimator's   Price    Book,"    "The    Slide    Rule    and 

How  TO  Use  It,"  Etc.,  Etc. 


Handsomely    Bound    in    Cloth,    Frice    $1.00. 

This  i.s  the  most  complete  book  of  the  kind  ever  published.  It  is 
Thorough,  Practical  and  Reliable,  and  at  the  same  time  is  written 
in  a  style  so  plain  that  any  workman  or  apprentice  can  easily  un- 
derstand it.  The  annexed  table  of  contents  will  give  a  better  idea 
of  its  scope  and  value  than  can  be  had  from  any  amount  of  notices 
or  descriptions  : 

TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PART  I. 

GEOMETP.T.-Srraight  Lines.-Cui-TOcl  Lines.-Solids.-Compound  Lines. 
—Parallel  Liri.-.<.-Obifiue  or  Converging  Lines.— Plane  Figures.- 
a.?rii'i-"^  •  "''^  -^"f 'es.-Acute  Angles.-Obtuse  Augles.-Riglit- 
auged  Tnangles.-Quadnlateral  Figuies.-Parallelograms.-Keet- 
auges.— bauares.— Rhomt).  li, Is.— Trapeziums.— Trapezoids.-Diag- 
onals.  — Folygoa.s.—  Peutiigous.  —Hexagons.  —  Heptagons.  —  Octa- 
gons.— Circles  —C'hords.— Tangents.— Sectors.— Quadrants  —  \  ivs  — 
C.^centnc  and  Eecentric  Circles.— Altitndes.—Prohlpnis  I  to  XXIT 
—Drawing  of  Angles.— Constriiotion  of  Gf^omfitrical  Figiir.^s  — p.jspf-- 
tion  of  Lines.— Trispction  of  Lines  and  Angles.— Division  of  Linos 
into  any  Number  of  Parts.— Construr-tion  of  Triangles.  Squarps  and 
l^^rallelograms.— Con.struction  of  Proportionate  Snuares —Con- 
struction of  Polygons.— Areas  of  Polygons.— \reas  of  Conoontri"' 
Kings  and  Circles.— Segments  of  Cii-les.— Thfi  u.se  of  Ordinatfs 
for  Obtaining  Arcs  of  Circles.— Drawing.an  Ellipse  with  a  Trammel. 
—Drawing  an  Ellipse  by  means  of  a  String.— Same  by  Ordinates.— 
Eaking   Ellipses.— Ovals.— Sixty-two  Illustrations. 


PAKT  II. 

Aeches,  Centres.— Window  and  Door  Heads.— Semi-circular  Arch.— 
JSetcmeutal  Aiclies.— ytiited  Arches. — Horseshoe  Arch.- Lancet  Arch. 
— Ecjuiltilenil  Arch.— Gothic  Tracery.— Wheel- Windows. — Emiila- 
teral  Tracery.— Square  Tracery.— Finished  Leaf  Tracery.— Tweuty- 
two  Illustrations. 


PART  III. 

Roofs.— Saddle  Eoof.— Lean-to  or  Shed  Roof.— Simplo  Hip-Roof.— 
Pyramidal  Roof.— Theoretical  Roof.— Roof  with  Straining  Beam.— 
Gotliic  Roof.- Hammer-Beam  Roofs. — Curved  Principal  Roots. — 
Roofs  with  Suspending  Rods.— Deck  Rools.— King-post  and  Prin- 
cipal Roof. — Queen-post  andPrincii);il  Roof. — Ruofswith  Lamimiled 
Arches. — Strapped  Roof  Frames. — Tie-beam  Roofs. — Roofs  for  Long 
Spans. — Theatre  Roof. — Cliurch  R(jof. — Mansai'd  Rot)f. — Slopes  of 
Roofs. — Rules  for  Determining  tht;  Sizes  of  Timbers  for  Roofs. — 
Acute  and  Obtuse  Angli'd  Hip-Roofs. — Development  of  Hip-Roofs.— 
Obtaining  Lengths  and  Bi'vcls  of  Rafters.— Backing  Hip-Rafters.— 
Lengtlis,  Bevels  and  Cuts  of  Purlins.— Circular,  Conical  and  Seg- 
ment.! I  Hdofs. — Rafters  with  Variable  Curves.— Veranda  Rafters.— 
Development  of  all  kinds  of  Rafters.— Curved  Mansard  Rafters.— 
Framed  Mansard  Roofs.— Lines  and  Rules  for  obtaining  various 
kinds  of  Information.- Thirty-four  Illustrations. 


PAET  IV. 

CovRRTNO  OF  RooFS.— Shingling  Common  Roofs.— Shingling  Hip- 
Roofs.— Method  of  Shingling  on  Hip  Corner.— Covering  Circular 
Roofs.— Covering  Ellipsoidal  Roofs.— Valley  Roofs.— Four  Illustra- 
tions. 


PART  V. 

Thf,  Mttfrtng  and  Abjustinc.  of  Mouldings.- Mitering  of  Snring 
Mouldings.— Preparing  thr-  Mitro-box  for  Cutting  Spring  Mould- 
ings.— Rules  for  Cutting  Mouldings,  with  Dingr:ims.— Mitre-bnxes 
nf  A^arious  forms.— Lines  for  Spring  Mouldings  of  various  kinds.— 
Seven  Illustrations. 


PART  VI. 


PART  VIL 

MouT.DiNOS.— Anglo  Brackets.- Corner  Coves,— Enlarging  and  Rcluc- 
ing  Mouldings.— Irregular  Mouldings.— Raking  Mouldings,  with 
Rules  for  Obtaining.— Mouldings  for  Plinths  and  Capitals  of  Gothic 
Cnlumns.— Mouldings  around  Square  Standards.- Mitering  Cir- 
eulir  Mouldings  with  eneh  other —Mitering  Circular  Mouldings 
with  Straight  ones.- Mitering  Mouldings  at  a  Tangent.— Mitering 
Spring  Cireular  Mouldings.— Deceription  of  Spring  Mo\ildings.— 
Lines  for  Circular  Spring  Mouldings.— Seventeen  Illustrations. 


PART  vni. 


^^^fr^^®^?'-5?^-~^.?™™o^  Dovetailinff.-Lapped  Dovetailing.- 
fc,l>,r  u7f '^^^^''^•7^'^i^''''® .  Dovetiiiliug.-Splay  Dovetailiui.- 
^n^^^L^^^^J''"?^'^^^''  Dovetailing.-Liues  aud  Cuts  for  Hoppers 
inustiSns  "^"^^^^  ^""^  ^"'^^^  *^''  Splayed  Work.-Nineteen 


PAET  IX. 


.JiscELLAXEOUs  PEOBLEMs.-Bent  Work  for  Splayed  Jambs.-Develon- 
meut  of  Cylinders.-Kules  and  Diagrams  for  Taking  Dimensions - 
Angular  and  Cur^-ed  Measurements.-Eight  Illustrations 


PART  X. 


■Hook 

nts.- 


x..i,.g-uuii.-.— ouiips,  lion  xies,  sockets,  Beaiine-nlatPS  Rinp-<5 
bwivels  and  other  Iron  Fastenings.-Straining  Timbers  Stnitlm?i 
King-pieces.-Three  Plates,  Sixty-flve  Illustrftion°         '  ^ 


PART  XI. 

HiNcpo  AND  SwiXG  Jors-TS.-Door  Hineing.-Ceuti:e-pin  Hiuging.- 
Blind  Hinging.— Folding  Hinging.— Knuckle  Hinging— Pew  Hiiig- 
nig.-^V^indow  Hinging. -Half-turn  Hinge.-Full-turn  Hinge.-Back 
v>i?  ^,\^p^S.-^l]\(i-ion\t  Hinging.-Rebate  Hinging.— Three 
Plates,  Fifty-one  Illustrations. 


PART  XII. 

Useful  Rui.r'^  and  Tables.— Hints  on  the  Constnietion  of  Centres.— 
Rules  for  Estimating.— Form  of  Estimate.— Items  for  Estimating,— 
Remarks  on  Fences.— Nails:  sizes.  ^Yeights,  lengths  and  numbers.— 
Cornices,  Pronortions  and  Projections  for  Different  Styles  nf  Archi- 
tecture: and  Tall  aud  Low  Buildings,  Verandas,  Bay  Windows  and 
Porches.— Proportion  of  Base-boards,  Dados,  Wainscots  and  Sui- 
bases.— Woods.  Hard  and  Soft,  their  Preparation,  and  how  to 
Finish.— Strength  and  Resistance  of  Timber  of  various  kinds.— 
Rules,  showing  Weight  and  other  qualities  of  Wood  and  Timber.— 
Stairs.  Width  of  Treads  and  Risers ;  their  Cost ;  how  to  Estimate  on 
them.  etc. — Inclinations  of  Roofs. — Contents  of  Boxes,  Bins  and 
Barrels.— Arithmetical  Signs.— Mensuration  of  Superficies.— Areas 
of  Squares,  Triangles,  Circles,  Regular  and  Irregular  Polygons. — 
Properties  of  Circles.— Solid  Bodies. — Gunter's  Chain.— Drawing 
and  Drawing  Instruments.— Coloring  Drawings.— Coloring  for 
Various  Building  Materials. — Drawing  Papers. — Sizes  of  Drawing 
Papers. — T.ihle  nf  Board  Measure. — Nautical  Table. — Measure  of 
Time. — .\uthorizpd  Metric  System. — Measures  of  Length. — Mea- 
sures of  Surfaces.— Measures  of  Capacity.— Weights. — .\merican 
Weights  and  Measures. — Square  Measui-i'.— Cubic  Measure.— Cir- 
cular Measure.— Decimal  Approximations.— Form  of  Building 
Contract. 


THEIR  USE,  CABE  AND  ABUSE. 

HOW  TO  SELECT,  AND  HOW  TO  FILE  THEM. 

Being  a  Complete  Guide  for  Selecting,  Using  and  Filing  all  kinds  of  Ilaud- 
Saws,   Back-saws,  Compass  and  Key-hole  Saws,  Web,    Hack  and 
Butcher's  Saws  ;    showing  the  Shapes,  Forms,  Angles,  Pitclies 
and  Sizes  of  Saw-Teeth  suitable  for  all  kinds  of  Saws,  and  for 
all  kinds  of  Wond,  Bone,  Ivory  and  Metal ;  together  with 
Hints  and  Suggestions  on  the  Choice  of  Files,  Saw- 
Sets,  Filing  Clamps,  and  other  Matters  pertain- 
ing to  the    Care  and    Management  of  all 
Classes  of  Hand  and  other  Small  Saws. 
The  work   is    intended   more   particularly  for  Operative    Carpenters, 
Joiners,  Cabinet-Makers,  Carriage  Builders,  and  Wood-Workers 
Generally,  Amateurs  or  Professionals. 

ILLUSTRATED   liT  OVER   SEVENTT-FIVE  ENGRAVINGS. 

By  FRED.  T.  HODGSON, 

Author  of  "The  Steel  Square  and  Its  Uses,"  "The   Builder's  Guide  amd 
Estimator's  Price  Book,"    Practical  Carpentry,"  Etc.,  Etc. 

P»rice  ._---_  $1.00. 


T.ABLE     OF-    OOISTTENTS. 

PAET  I. 

History  of  the  Saw. — Saws  of  the  Cireeks. — Invention  of  the  First  Saws. — 
Eygptian  Bronze  Saws  in  the  British  Museum. — Antiquity  of  Saws.-  . 
Mention  of  Saws  in  Holy  Writ. — Saws  of  the  Stone  Age.— Saws  of  the 
South-sea  Islanders. — Saws  for  Cutting  Stone. — Japanese  Saws.— -Dif- 
ferent Varieties  of  Saws. — Manner  of  Using  Saws  by  the  Ancients. — 
Assyrian  Saws. —Invention  of  Circular  and  Band-Saw.s.— First  Circular- 
Saws  in  America. 

PAET  II. 

Philosophy  of  the  Cutting  Qualities  of  Saw -Teeth. —The  "  Why  and  Where- 
■  fore"  of  the  Culling  Pilch  and  Angles  of  liip-Saw  Teeth.— The  Round 
Gullet-Tooth.— Ciiisel-Tcelh  and  "their  Action  on  the  Wood.— On 
tlie  Various  Angles  Required  for  Cutting  Hard  and  Soft  Woods,  with 
Explanations  of  Space,  Pitch,  Gullet,  Gauge,  Set,  Rake  and  Points.— 
Names  of  Saws,  with  Dimensions,  Form  of  Teeth,  Descriptions  and 
Explanations.— How  to  Choose  a  Saw  ;  with  Hints  as  to  Form,  Quality, 
Make  and  "  Hang "  of  a  Saw,  with  Remarks  Concerning  Dillerent 
Makers- — Sash-Saws.  Dovetail-Saws,  Rip-Saws,  Panel-Saws,  Cross-cut 
Saws,  Bow-Saws,  Web-Saws,  Key-hole  Saws,  Cornpass-Saws  and  Tenon- 
Saws. 

PAKT  III. 

How  to  Use  Hand-Saws.— How  to  Saw  Well  and  Easily.— Hints  for  Sawing 
Straight.— Rules  for  New  Beginners.— French,  (Jcrman  and  .\merican 
Workmen.— Saws  Filed  to  Work  on  the  Pnll-Stroke.— Changeable 
Key-hole  Saws.— Use  of  Back-Saws.— Use  of  Web-Saws.— Care  of 
Buck-Saws.— The  Buck-Saw;  the  Terror  of  Boyhood,  and  Whv.-The 
Butcher's-Saw,  the  Hack-Saw.  and  the  Surgeoi\'s-Saw  with  Descrip- 
tion of  Each,  and  WmU  as  to  their  Management. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  {Continued). 

PAKT  IV. 

Filing  and  Setting  Hand-Saws.— The  Qualities  Required  to  make  a  GooQ 
Filer.— Rules  in  some  Old-time  Joiner  Shops.— Careless  Filing  and  its 
Consequences.— Clamping  Saws  for  Filing.— The  Line  of  Teeth.— 
Angular  Groove  on  Cutting  Edge  of  Saw.— Filing  Backs  of  Teeth.— 
Joiating  the  Sides  of  Teeth.— Sliape  of  Teeth  for  ""Cross-cutting  Hard 
Wood,  MeUium  and  Soft  Wood.— Cutting  Angles  Required  for  Various 
Degrees  of  Hardness  in  Woods.— Angle  to  H^i^ld  the  File. — The  True 
Theory  of  Saw-Filing.— Buckling  and  Twisting  Saws;  How  Done  and 
How  Avoided.— '•  Hook  and  Pitch."— Careless  Use  of  Saws,  and  the 
Injuries  Done  to  them  in  Consequence.— The  Filing  of  Diflerent  Saws, 
and  why  One  Class  of  Saws  Require  Different  Treal  ment  from  Another. 
The  Saw  that  Scrapes,  and  the  Saw  that  Cuts  ;  the  "  Why"  of  this  Dif- 
ference— Why  Some  Men  do  iluch  More  Work  than  Others,  and  with 
Greater  Ease,  when  Sawing. 

PART  V. 

Miscellaneous  Saws  ;  their  Uses,  How  to  Care  for  Them,  and  How  to  Use 
Them. -The  M  Tooth.  Teeth  that  Cut  Both  Wavs,  Crenate  Teeth, 
Brier  Teeth,  Gullet  Teeth,  Parrot-bill  Teeth,  Hog  Teeth,  the  Lancet 
and  other  Fancy  Forms  of  Teeth.  Described  and  Explained.— The  Old- 
style  "  Peg  Tooth,"  for  Two-handed  Cross-cut  Saws. — Various  Exam- 
ples of  tlie  •'  Peg-Tooth  Saw. — Hack-Saws  ;  How  to  Use  and  How  to 
Keep  in  Order.— Butchers-Saws,  Surgeon's-Saws.  Saws  for  Cutting 
Combs,  Ivory,  Brass,  Gold,  and  Silver.— Circular-Saws  for  Cutting 
Metal.  Ivory".  Tortoise-shell,  and  other  Hard  Materials.— Jig-Saws, 
Band-Saws  ;'  their  Uses  and  How  to  Keep  them  in  Order.— Scroll-Saws  ; 
their  Uses  and  Care.— Progress  of  the  Band-Saw  ;  its  Future  ;  How  to 
Make  them  do  Clean  Work.— Heating  Saws  ;  Rules  for  their  Manage- 
ment.—Why  Circular-Saws  Burst. 

PAET  VI. 

Remarks  on  Saws,  Files,  Sets,  and  other  Appliances.— Saw-Files ;  what 
Constitutes  a  Good  One,  and  How  to  Select.— Diflerent  Qualities  of 
Saw-Files,  and  How  to  Know  the  Various  Grades. — Why  there  are 
Diflerent  Grades.— Hints  on  the  Use  of  Files. — Circulai--Saws  that  are 
not  Circular.— How  to  Become  an  Expert  Sawyer.— Speed  of  Circular- 
Saws  ;  Table  of  Same.— Speed  of  Reciprocating-Saws.  or  Jig-Saws, 
Speed  of  Feed  for  Same.— Working  Action  of  Band-Saws. — How  Band- 
Saws  Became  Possible.— French  and  American  Band-Saw  Blades.— 
Inside  Sawing  with  Band-Saws. — Detachable  Band-Saws. — Aids  to 
Saw-Filing.  —  Saw-Clamps.  —  Saw-Filers.  —  Saw-Sets.  —  Hand-Setting 
with  Pimch  and  Hammer.— Setting  with  "Sets."— Machine  Band-Saw 
Setters.— Devices  for  Holding  Saws  while  being  Set  and  Filed. 

PAET  VII. 

Notes  and  Memoranda.— Saw-Gauges.— Comb-Saw  Gauges.— Saw-GuMts. 
Mitre-Boxes.— Circular  i-.s.  Band-Saws.— Emery    Sharpeners.— Small 
,  Saws.— Machine-Saws.  -Narrow     Saws.— Brazinsr     Band-Saws.— Re- 
marks on  Circular-Saws.— Power  Required  to  Drive  Circular-Saws, — 
Mill-Saws.— Saws  with  Few  Teeth. 


Plaster  and  Plastering. 
MORTAES    AND   CEMENTS. 

HOW  TO  make:,  Also  HOW  TO  USE. 

BEING  A  COMPLETE  GUIDE  FOR  THE  PLASTERER  IN  THE  PREPARATION 
AND  APPLICATION  OF  ALL  KINDS  OF  PLASTER,  STUCCO,  PORTLAND 
CEMENT,  HYDRAULIC  CEMENTS,  LIME  OF  TIEL,  ROSENDALE  AND 
OTHER  CEMENTS,  WITH  USEFUL  AND  PRACTICAL  INFORMA- 
TION ON  THE  CHEMISTRY,  QUALITIES  AND  USES  OF  THE 
VARIOUS  KINDS  OF  LIMES  AND  CEMENTS.  TO- 
GETHER WITH  RULES  FOR  MEASURING, 
COMPUTING,  AND  VALUING  PLASTER 
AND  STUCCO  WORK. 

TO  WHICH    IS  APPENDED 

AN ILLmTRATED  GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS 

USED     IN     PLASTERING,     ETC. 

Besides  rmmerous  Enirraviiij:;s  in  the  text,  there  are  three  Plates,  giving  some 
forty  figures  of  Ceilings,  Centrepieces,  Cornices,  Panels  and  Soffits. 


By    FRED.  T.   HODGSON, 


i*rice 


(^l.OO. 


INDEX. 


Description  of  Plates, 
Preface,    . 
Preliiuinarv, 


TOOLS  AND  MATERLVLS. 


The  Hoe  or  Drag, 

The  Hawk, 

The  Mortar-Board,   . 

Trowels, 

Floats, 

Moidds,   . 

('(Mitre  Moulds, 

The  Pointer,  . 

The  Paddle, 

Stopping    and    Pricking  out 

Miterinir  Rods,   .         .         , 


'\\:u\ 


P.\r.R 
10 
10 
11 
11 
11 
II 

12 
12 
12 
12 
VI 


PACK 
1 


The  Operator, 

12 

The  Scratchcr,  . 

.     \% 

The  Hod. 

13 

The  Sieve, 

.     13 

Sand  Screens, 

13 

Mortar-r5<'(ls, 

.     U 

The  Slack  Box,      . 

U 

I>ath. 

.     U 

Lather's  Hatchet, 

15 

Nail  Poeket, 

.     15 

<"iit  off  Saw,  , 

,         .         1§ 

INDEX     (Continued). 


MATEIIIALS  EMPLOYED  IN  PLASTERING. 


Internal  Plastering, 
Coarse  Stiifl', 
Fine  Stuff, 

Putty 

Stucco,       .        .        .        . 

Lime, 

Plaster-of-Parls, 

Laths,      .        .        .        s 

Cements,    .        .        .        . 

Calcination,    . 

Quicklime, 

Slaking,  ... 

Air  Slaking, 

Hydraulicify, 

HVdraulic  Limes, 

Sand 

,  OPERATIONS. 

General  Instnictions. 
Floating  the  Work, 
Trowelling  and  Rendering 
Running  Cornices, 
Ornamental  Cornices, 
Flowers  and  Cast  Work, 


PAGE 

.     16 

16 
.     16 

16 

•     16 

17,  18,  20 

17,  18 

17 
.     17 

18 
.     18 

18 
.     19 

19 
.     20 

22 

page) 
.     30 

31 
.     32 

32 
.     34 

35 


PLASTERER'S  MEASUREMENT. 

PAGE 

Measuring  and  Valuation,  .  .  44 
Mensuration  of  Supertices,  .  .  44 
Taking  Dimensions,         .        .        .44 

Speciflcations 46 

Rendering  to  Walls,  .        .        .46 

Lath  and  Plaster  Work  to  Ceilings,    47 

Lath  and  Plaster  Work  to  Parlitions.   47 

MISCELLANEOUS    MEMORANDA 

>PAGE 


Hard  Hydraulic  Cement, 
Colored  Cements, 
Brick-Dust  Cement, 
Hardening  Plaster, 
Mastic  Cement, 

Cement  for  Outside  Brick  Walls 
To  Mend  Plaster  Models, 
Cheap  Concrete  Flooring,    . 
To  Make  Moulds, 
Artificial  Building  Stone, 
Artificial  Marble^ 
Hard  Mortar,        ... 
Marble-Worker's  Cement, 
Mason's  Cement,    ... 
Whitewash.        .... 
Red  Wash  fbr  Bricks.    . 
To  Whiten  Internal  Walls, 

Concrete 

Papier  Mache 

Plaster  Ornaments, 
Fibrous  Plaster, 
Staining  Marble,    . 
Cleaning  Marble, 


GLOSSARY  OF  TERMS.     A  to  Z, 


Substitutes  for  Sand, 

PAGR 

.     23 

Marble  Dust, 

24 

Hair.  ..;-.. 

.     24 

Colors, 

24 

Whitewash,        .... 

.     24 

Whiting,          .        .        .        • 

25 

Saylor's  Portland  Cement, 

.    25 

Cellar  Floors, 

25 

Mastic  for  Plasterinir, 

.     25 

Stable  Floors,        ."     . 

25 

Concrete  for  Foundations, 

.     26 

Keeue's  Cement,   . 

27 

Metallic  Cement, 

.     27 

Portland-Cement  Stucco,     . 

28 

Lias  Cement,     .... 

.     28 

Rough  Cast,    .... 

29 

PACK 

External  Plastering, 

35^1 

Scagliola 

41 

Carton  Pierre,  .... 

.    42 

Papier  Mache, 

42 

Stamped  Leather,    . 

.    42 

Stearate  of  Lime, 

42-43 

PAGE 

Measuring  Cornices, 

.    47 

Measuring  Stucco, 

48 

Coloring, 

.     48 

Summary,       .... 

48-50 

Pugging", 

.     50 

Whitewashing  and  Coloring, 

51-53 

PAGE 

To  Take  Wax  Moulds  from  Plast 

?r,    59 

Cement  for  Mouldings,     . 

.    60 

Cement  Floors  for  Cellars,   . 

60 

Wash 

.     60 

Coloring  in  Distemper, 

61 

Mortar 

.     61 

Caution,         .... 

61 

Concrete  Walls, 

.     62 

External  Stucco,    . 

62 

Proportions  of  Materials, 

.     62 

Puzzolana,      .... 

62 

Grout 

.     63 

Weights  of  Materials,    . 

04 

Items 

.     64 

Cisterns.          .... 

64 

Blackboards 

.     65 

Measuring  Plasterer's  Work, 

66 

Notes 

.     07 

Mortars  and  Cements, 

67-74 

Concrete  Houses. 

74-77 

Strength  of  Difl'erent  Mortars, 

77-78 

Form  of  Agreement, 

78-81 

83-10; 

IMPOETANT    ANNOUNCEMENT 

TO  ARCHITECTS,  CONTRACTORS  AND  BUILDERS. 

For  manj'  years  past  there  has  been  a  want  by  the  building  fraternity  of  a  good 
and  reliable  book  on  Estimating,  one  that  will  give  prices  of  materials  and  labor 
for  every  department  of  bniiding,  so  far  as  this  is  possible.  Such  a  book,  tlie  pub- 
lishers believe,  has  at  last  been  produced,  and  is  now  offered  to  those  interested. 

THE  BUILDER'S  GUIDE, 

AND  ESTIMATOR'S  PRICE  BOOK. 

By    FRED.    T.    HODOSOnr. 


HANDSOMELY  JiOlXIJ  i.V  CLOTH,  GILT  TITLE.  PRICE,  -  $2.00. 
Current  Prices  of  Lumber,  Hardware,  Glass,  Plumbers' Supplies,  Paints, 
Slates,  Stones,  Limes,  Cements,  Bricks,  Tin  and  other  liuildinjj  Materials; 
also.  Prices  of  Labor,  and  Cost  of  Performing  tlie  Several  Kinds  of  AVork 
Required  in  Building:.  Togetlier  'vrith  Prices  of  Doors,  Frames,  Sashes, 
Stairs,  Mouldings,  Newels,  and  other  Machine  AVork.  To  which  is  appended 
a  large  number  of  Building  Rules,  Data,  Tables  and  Useful  Memoranda, 
with  a  Glossary  of  Architectural  and  Building  Terms. 

This  is  an  entirely  new  work,  and  gives  Prices  of  Labor  and  Materials  down 
to  a  recent  date,  and  is,  therefore,  the  most  reliable  book  in  the  market  on  the 
subject  of  prices  of  labor  and  materials  required  for  building.  The  work  con- 
tains, besides  Prices,  Data,  Rules,  and  Several  Hundred  Tables  and  Hints  on 
Building,  a  blank  column  where  the  jirices  of  Labor  or  Material  may  be  written 
in  pencil,  where  such  prices  differ  from  those  given  in  the  book.  There  is  also 
a  very  comi)lete  Glossary  of  Building  and  Arcliiteclural  Terms  appended  to  the 
work,  which  is  a  useful  and  valuable  addition  for  practical  builders. 

The  work  is  really  a  Cyclopa?dia  of  Prices  and  Builder's  Tables,  Data  and. 
Memoranda,  and  is  necessarily  a  large  work,  having  over  330  pages,  each  page 
beiug  74  X  4|,  and  covered  with  closely  printed  matter. 

In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  what  the  work  contains  we  give  the  following  brief 

SYi^OPSIS    OF    CO:\TEr^TS: 

Part  L— Contains  Hints  and  Rules  for  Correct  Estimating.— Forms  for  Taking 
Estimates,  Quantities,  Prices,  and  Manner  of  Comiiutalion.—(ieueral  Memoranda 
of  Items  tor  Estimates. — Excavations. — Foundations.— Drains.  —  lron  Work.^ 
Batlis  and  ^Vater  Closets. — Brick  Walls. — Carpenter's  Wm'k. — .loiner's  Work. — 
Mantels,  <!rates,  Stove  Fitting.s,  etc. —  Pantry,  Closets,  Kitchens  and  Appurten- 
ances.— Bell  Hanging,  (Jas  Fixing  and  Fixtures. — Stairs  and  Staircases. — Roofs, 
(iutters  and  ('ondnctors. — Porches,  Verandas  and  Fences. — Framing;  Cost  of 
same.— Cost  of  Painting,  Plasf<'ring,  Shingling,  Slating,  Tinning,  Finishing, 
(Hazing.  Building  Chimneys,  and  otlier  Brick  Work. -Itules  for  Measuring  all 
kinds  of  Hip  and  other  Roofs,  with  Cost  of  same.-  Rough  Boarding.  Shingling. 
Siding,  Laying  Floors,  and  other  Woi-k.— Cost  of  Material  and  Labor  for  Stairs, 
Newels.  Balusters.  Kails.  Dooi's.  Mouldiuirs.  Sliding  and  Folding  Doors,  Windows 
of  all  kinds.  Blinds,  \\'ainscoting.  Baseboards,  Finials,  Cresting,  Plumbing,  Floor- 
ing, and  everything  else  used  about  a  Building. 

Part  II. — Contains  an  Extensive  Schedule  of  Builder's  Prices,  for  Digging, 
Shovelling,  Ramming  in  Loose  Earth,  Clay  and  Gravel. — Cost  of  Masonry, 
Rubble,  Hammer-Dressed  Work,  Rough  Rock"  Work,  Reveals,  Ashler  Work,  Re- 


SYNOPSIS   OF  CONTENTS   (CoiitilUied). 

pairs,  Arclips,  Tlaiii  Work,  RiibbiHl  Work,  Beaded  Work,  Fluting,  Reeding, 
Tliroating,  Grooving,  K('l)ating,  Leading  in  Work,  Sunken  Work,  Mortising, 
etc. — Prices  of  ail  kinds  ot  Native  Stones  per  Cubic  Foot. — Prices  of  Cements; 
Portland,  Rosendale,  Keenc's,  Lime  of  Teil.  Lime,  Lath,  Slate,  etc. — Bricklay- 
ing; Price  per  1,000,  Laborer's  Wages,  Prices  of  Bricks  of  Different  Grades,  Cir- 
cular and  Elliptical  Work,  Brick  Paving  of  all  kinds.  Laid  Dry  or  in  Mortar. — 
Drain  Pipes,  Cost  and  Quality;  Terra-Cotta  Chimney  Tops,  Cresting,  Tiles  and 
Mouldings,  etc.— Colored  Bricks,  Tuck  Pointing,  Setting  in  Sash  and  Door 
Frames,  Taking  Down  Old  Work,  Rebuilding  with  Old  Bricks,  Firebricks,  Tile 
Work,  Quality  and  Prices  of  Briclis  from  Various  Localities.  Prices  of  Peerless 
Brick  Company's  Colored  Bricks,  Colored  Mortars  and  Cements.  Odd-Shaped 
Bricks. — Plasterers  Work,  Scaffolding,  Latliing,  Mortars  fur  all  kinds  of  Work, 
CenuMits  for  Walls  and  Ceilings,  Cornices  and  Stucco  Work,  Plaster-of-Paris 
Flower  and  Ornamental  Work,lvaIsomining  and  Washes  of  all  Kinds.— Carpen- 
ter's and  Joiner's  Work  ;  Wages,  Prices  of  Lumber,  Prices  of  Made-up  Stuff  of  all 
Kinds. — Hard-wood  Work,  Nails,  Screws.  I^ocks,  Butts  and  other  Hardware.— 
Stairs  of  all  Kinds,  Table  for  Finding  the  Run  and  Rise  of  Treads  and  Risers, 
Turned  Work  for  Stairs  and  other  Work. — Painting,  Colors,  Prices  for  Different 
Kinds  of  Work,  Ladders,  Scaffolding,  Tools,  Graining,  Painting  Iron  Work, 
Staining,  Repairing  Old  Work.  Niunerical  Work,  Varnishing,  Lettering,  Oiling, 
Sash  and  Door  Painting,  Mixing  Colors,  Prices  of  Colors,  Miscellaneous  Re- 
marks.— Roofing  Materials  of  all  Kinds,  with  Prices  and  Cost  of  Laying  ;  Bell- 
Hanging  Materials,  Skylights,  Tubs,  Sinks,  Sheet  Iron,  Pumps,  Tanks",  Registers, 
Ventilators,  Wire  Ropes, "and  other  matters  requireil  in  Building. 

Part  III.— Contains  Rules  for  Builder's  Bookkeeping,  Form  of  Balance  Sheet, 
Rules  for  Measiu'ing  Artiticer's  Work,  including  Excavation,  Drains.  Shoring, 
Concreting,  and  Labor  in  General :  also  Methods  of  ]\Ieasuriiig  all  Kinds  of  Ma- 
terials for  Brick,  Stone,  or  Wood  Work. — Elements  of  the  Mechanics  of  Archi- 
tecture, Strength  of  Materials,  Rules  for  Olitaining  Same  ;  Iron,  Wood,  Stone 
and  Brick,  Crushing  Loads  for  Various  Building  Materials,  Columns,  Iron,  Wood, 
Stone.— Tables  for  Computing  the  Strength  ol'  Materials.  Factors  of  Safety, 
Rolled-Iron  Beams  and  Girders. — Bricks  and  Brick  Piers,  Terra-Cotta,  Strength 
and  Qualities  of  Cements  and  Mortars,  Fire-Brick,  Colored  Mortars,  Granite  and 
other  Stone. 

Part  IV.— Miscellaneous  Tables.— Weight  of  Iron,  Lead,  Brass,  Copper  and 
Cast  Iron,  per  Foot  Superficial  or  in  Bars ;  Strength  of  Round  Ropes,  Weight  of 
Boiler  Iron,  Wrought-Iron  Pipes,  Flat  and  Round  Wire  Ropes  for  Elevators,  Iron 
Roofing,  Lead  Pi'pes,  Nails,  Foreign  Weights  and  Measures,  Force  of  Wind, 
Square  Measure,  Long  Measure,  Equivalents,  Arithmetical  and  other  Signs,  Ex- 
pansion bv  Heat,  Force  of  Explosives,  Number  of  Shingles.  Slates,  Tiles  and 
other  Covering  Required  lor  100  feet  of  Roofing,  Number  of  Bricks  Required  for 
Given  Wall,  Strength  of  Woods,  Loads  for  Bridges,  Strains  on  Bridges  and 
Tru.sses,  Specific  Gravities. 

Part  V. — Mensuration  of  Superflces,  Areas  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Triangles, 
]\Iulti-sided  Figures,  etc.;  Measurements  of  Solids,  Cubes,  Cones,  Cylinders, 
Sjiheres.  etc.;  Squares  and  Cubes  of  Numbers,  Table  of  Spherical  Contents, 
Diameters,  Circumferences  and  Areas  of  Circles,  Board  and  Plank  Measure, 
Scantling  Measure,  Wages  Table,  Sizes  and  Capacities  of  Cribs,  Boxes  and  Tanks. 

Part  VI.— Mechanics'  Lien  Laws  of  Alabama.  Arkansas,  Connecticut,  Cali- 
fornia, Colorado,  District  of  Columbia,  Delaware,  Florida,  Georgia.  Indiana, 
Iowa,  Illinois,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Louisiana.  Jlassachusetts.  ;Maryland, 
Mississippi,  Michigan,  ^lissouri.  New  Jersey.  Nevada,  Nelirasku.  New  Hamp- 
shire, North  Carolina,  New  York,  Oregon,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Rhode  Island, 
South  Carolina,  Texas,  Tennessee,  Vermont,  Virginia,  West  Virginia,  Wisconsin, 
Ontario. 

Part  VII.— Schedule  of  Architect's  Charges,  Drawinirs.  Su|ierintendence,  Per- 
centage on  Public  Buildings.— Architect's  Rules  and  Methods  of  Charging  for 
Services  Rendered.— Leading  Architectural  and  Building  Jo\unals.— Glossary  of 
Architectural  and  Building  Terms.  (This  "Glossary"  covers  some  fifty-seven 
pages,  and  deals  with  over  One  Thousand  Terms  used  in  Architecture  and 
Building). 


A    NEW    BOOK 

FOK 

CABINET  MAKERS,  UPHOLSTERERS,  FURNITURE  MEN,  AMA- 
TEUR  WOOD  FINISHERS,  ETC.,  ETC. 


huntts 

AND 

Practical   Information 

FOR 

CABINET-MAKERS,   UPHOLSTERERS,  AND 
FURNITURE  MEN  GENERALLY. 

TOGETIIlCll   AVITII 

A  DESCRIPTION    OF    ALL   KINDS    OF   FINISHING,   WITH 
FULL      DIRECTIONS      THEREFOR— VARNISHES— POL- 
ISHES-STAINS   FOR    WOOD— DYES   FOR  WOOD- 
GILDING     AND     SILVERING— RECEIPTS     FOR 
THE  FACTORY— LACQUERS,  METALS,  MAR- 
BLES, ETC.— PICTURES,  ENGRAVINGS, 
ETC.— M ISCE  LL  ANEOUS. 


Tliis  woik  contains  an  Imnienso  Ainoiiut  of  the  most  Useful 
Infoiuiation  for  llioso  wlio  are  engaged  in  Manufacture,  Sui>erin- 
tendence,  or  Construction  of  Furniture  or  Wood  AVork  of  any 
Kind.  It  is  one  of  the  Cheapest  and  JJest  Books  Ev<'r  Published, 
and  contains 

Over  1,000  Hints,  Siii^gestioiis,  Methods, 

Autl    I>cscriptioiiN    of   Xools,    Api»Iia,ncc»$« 
SI  nil  IVliilei'ial!>i. 

All  the  ReeiiK'S,  Rules  and  Directions  have  heen  carefully  He- 
vised  and  Corrected  by  Piacti<'al  Men  of  great  ex])erience,  so  that 
I 'ley  will  be  found  tliorouglily  trustworthy. 

Price,  l{«Min!l  in  (  lelli,  ^\U\\  Side  Title  in  (wold,  $L00. 

Sknt  to  anv  Ai>i)ki:ss  on  RiiCKirr  of  Pkkk. 


A    yEW    SERIES    OF   PRACTICAL    HOOKS. 

WORK  MANUALS. 

The  intention  of  the  pubhshers  is  to  give  in  this  Series  a  number  of  small  books  which 

will  give  Thorough  and  Reliable  Information  in  the  plainest  possible  language,  upon  the 

ARTS    OF"    EVlER^iriJA^Y-    LIFE. 

Each  volume  will  be  by  some  one  who  is  not  only  practically  familiar  with  his  subject, 
but  who  has  the  ability  to  make  it  clear  to  others.  The  volumes  will  each  contain  from 
50  to  75  pages,  will  be  neatly  and  clearly  pnnted  on  good  paper  and  bound  in  tougli 
and  durable  binding.     The  price  will  be  US  cents  each,  or  fire  for  lute  l>ollar. 

The  following  are  the  tides  of  the  volumes  already  issued.  (Others  will  follow  at 
short  intervals. 

I.  Cements  and  Glue. 

A  Pracucal  Treatise  on  the  Preparation  and  Use  of  All  Kinds  of  Cements,  Glue 
and  Paste.     By  John   Phin,  Editor  of  the   Youti^  Scientist  and  the  ^  w^r/ca*- 
yotirual  of  Microscopy 
Every  mechanic  and  householder  will  find  this  volume  of  almost  everyday  use.     It 

contains  nearly  200  recipes  for  the  preparation  of  Cements  for  almost  every  conceivable 

purpose. 

II.  The  Slide  Rule,  and  How  to  Use  It. 

This  is  a  compilation  of  Explanations,  Rules  and  Instructions  suitable  for  mechanics 
and  others  interested  in  the  industrial  arts.  Rules  are  given  for  the  measurement  ot 
all  kinds  of  boards  and  planks,  timber  it  the  round  or  square,  glaziers'  work  and  paint- 
ing, brickwork,  paviors'  work,  tiling  and  slating,  the  measurement  of  vessels  of  various 
shapes,  the  wedge,  inclined  planes,  wheels  and  axles,  levers,  the  weighing  and  meas- 
urement of  metals  and  all  solid  bodies,  cylinders,  cones,  globes,  octagon  rules  and 
formulae,  the  measurement  of  circles,  and  a  companson  of  French  and  English  measures, 
with  much  other  information,  useful  to  builders,  carpenters,  bncklayers,  glaziers, 
paviors,  slaters,  machinists  and  other  mechanics. 

Possessed  of  this  little  Book  and  a  good  Slide  Rule,  mechanics  might  carry  in  their 
pockets  some  hundreds  ol  times  the  po.ver  of  calculation    that  they  now  have  in  their 
heads,  and  the  use  of  the  instrument  is  very  easily  acquired. 
HI.    Hints  for  Painters,  Decorators  and  Paperhangers. 

Being  a  selection  of  Useful  Rules,  Data,  Memoranda,  Meth' ds  and  Suggestions 
for  House,  Ship,  and  Furniture  i'ai^iting,  Paperhanging,  Gilding,  Color  Mixing, 
and  other  matters  Useful  and  lu>tructive  to  Painters  and  Decorators.  Prepared 
with  Special  Reference  to  the  Wants  of  -Amateurs.     By  an  Old  Hand. 

IV.  Construction,  Use  and  Care  of  Drawing  Instruments. 

Being  a  Treatise  on  Draughting  Instruments,  with  Rules  for  their  Use  and  Care, 
Explanations  of  Scale.,  Sectors  and  Protractors.  Together  with  Memoranda  for 
Draughtsmen,  Hints  on  Purchasing  Paper,  Ink,  Instruments,  Pencils,  etc.  Also  a 
Price  List  of  all  materials  required  by  Draughtsmen.  Illustrated  with  twentj'-four 
Explanatory  Illustrations.     By  Freu.  T.  Hodgson. 

V.  The  Steel  Square.  " 

Some  Difficult  Problems  in  Carpentry  and  Joinery  Simplified  and  Solved  by  the 
aid  of  the  Carpenters'  Steel  Square,  together  with  a  Full  Description  of  the  Tool, 
and  Explanations  of  the  Scales,  Lines  and  Figures  on  the  Blade  and  I'ongue,  and 
How  to  Use  ihem  in  Everyday  Work.  Showing  how  the  Square  may  be  Used 
in  Obtaining  the  Lengths  and  Bevels  of  Rafters,  Hips,  Groins,  Braces,  Brackets, 
Purlins,  Collar-Beams,  and  Jack-Rafters.  Also,  its  Application  in  Obtaining 
the  Bevels  and  Cuts  for  Hoppers,  Spring  Mouldings,  Octagons,  Diminished 
Styles,  etc.,  etc.  Illustrated  by  Numerous  Wood-cu  s.  By  Fred.  T.  Hougson, 
Author  of  the  "Carpenters'  Steel  Square." 
Note. — This  work  is  intended  .is  an  elementary  introduction  for  the  U'-e  of  those  who 
tiave  not  time  to  study  Mr.  Hodgson's  lavger  work  on  the  same  subject. 


POCKET  MANUAL  NUMBER  ONE ;  OR,  THE 

Writers'  and  Travellers'  Ready  Reference  Book 

Rev.    JOHN  ]TI.   HERON,  A.  M.,  Editor. 

U.  A  Table  showing  distanco  of  the 
principal  American  ('ilies  from 
New  York,  the  difference  in 
Time,  and  the  present  Popula- 
tion of  Each. 

15.  Our  Country  iiiul  Government;  the 
Area  of  the  U.  S.,  how  acquin^l; 
Population  of  Stales  and  Terri- 
tories, Number  of  Electoral  Votes 
each  is  entitled  to.  Representa- 
tives, etc.;  The  Executive  and 
Judii'ial  Branches  of  the  Govern- 
ment, duties  of  officials,  their 
salaries ;  AmericHu  Progress, 
etc.,  etc. 

iti.  Our  Deportment. 

17.  A  Complete  Index. 


1.  Title  Page. 

'J.  DediCHtion  and  Copyright. 

3.  Editor's  Preface. 

4.  Contents. 

5.  Over  20,000  Synonymous  AYords. 
Foreign    Words    and    Phrases    in 

general  use. 
7.  Domestic    and     Foreign     Postage 
Rates    and    Laws    and    Stamp 
Duties. 
^.  Value  Foreign  Coins  as  per  author- 
ized stan<l!ird  U.  S.  Mint. 
t.  Us(!  of  Capital  Letters. 
Rules  for  Punctuation. 
11.  Abbnn'iiitiiiiis  mid  I  heir  use. 
V>.  A  Perpetual  Calendar. 
i:i.  An  Interest  Table. 


6. 


Ill, 


Thousands  of  i)eople  have  louij  felt  the  need  of  such  a  work  as  this.  Tlie 
corresjioinlent.  student,  literary  worker,  or  any  person  who  has  any  writinj;  to 
do.  is  constantly  annoyed  to  think  of  just  the'rijiht  words  to  use  "in  order  to 
convey  the  idea  intended  and  make  a  smooth  and  finished  sentence.  The 
Writers'  and  Travellers"  Ready  Referenct'  Rook  contains  '20.000  synonymous 
weirds,  alphahetically  arrauiicd".  and  this  feature  of  it  not  only  suii|)lie*s  this  often 
luncli  needed  word,  but  it  at  the  same  tinu'  kdicates  the  searcher  and  enables 
him  to  express  himself  verbally  with  ^race  and  ease.  To  the  writer  this  list  of 
Synonyioous  Words  is  second  only  to  the  Spelliiiii'  Book.  Tlu-  use  of  Capitals, 
rules  for  runcluation  and  use  of  Abbreviations  are  all-important,  and  freciuently 
;i  lack  of  their  observance  or  an  iiiuorance  of  their  proper  use  turns  what  "  miiiht 
iiave  been"  «  s((«'f.s-s/'«/ Z//'e  into  another  chaniu'l  because  such  thiiuxs  as  these 
(•aused  some  iiersoii  to  reject  the  application  which  otherwise  would  have  been 
the  successful  lurnint^  point  in  the  career  of  the  writer.  We  cannot  always 
carry  a  Spelliiiii-  Hook  or  Dictionary  with  us,  and  nowhere  is  inlormation  on 
these  jioints  so  concisely  liiven  and  so  hamly  for  reference  as  in  the  Writers' 
and  Travellers"  Ready  Reference  Book.  We  often  spend  considerable  time 
and  yii  to  lots  of  troulile  to  ascertain  somethiuir  about  I'ostaii'c  Rates.  There 
are  lint  few  of  us  who  do  not  need  a  list  to  v.ive  us  the  meaniuii  of  Foreign 
\\ords  and  Rhrases  which  we  constantly  come  across  in  readln<r.  A  Calendar, 
Interest  Table,  and  table  showin^r  tlu'  value  of  Foreiycn  Coins,  are  all  ennnently 
practical  and  usefid.  All  these  this  little  book  contains.  The  owe  table  showiuir 
at  a  glance  the  iiopulation  of  the  iirinoipal  .Vineiican  cities,  the  distance  of  each 
from  New  York  City,  and  the  difl'erence  in  lime,  is  a  marrel  of  condeiinalioii, 
and  is  worth  more  than  the  iirice  of  the  book  to  any  traveller.  Under  the 
head  of  "  Our  Country  and  (ioverimieiit  '"  is  jiiven  the  pith  of  a  large  vohune. 
•usT  srcii  facts  as  every  American  ought  to  i)Ossess,  and  they  can  be  obtained 
nowhere  else  lor  less  than/o(/r  timrs  the  Dioiiei/. 

(iooil  maniH'rsand  an  observance  of  a  lew  simple  Rules  of  Etiquette  often  <1o 
iiioi-f  towards  ^\•ilulilli:■  friends  and  making  oiu'  happy,  than  wealth,  or  the  mosl 
classic  education.  'I'hey  alirai/s  go  further  than  either  or  Ixith  towards  making 
a  f/r)itle)n(ni  or  liiilij.  Such  (Jc-ms  of  Deportment  as  are  ot  value  to  all,  will  be 
foiuid  in  the  "  Rocket  Manual." 

!•<' voir  would  perfect  and  educate  yourself  in  these  matters,  by  all  means, 
('•V.T  IT.  IF  YOU  would  save  yoinself  from  loaiiy  aniKiyances  and  much  loss 
(it  time  and  money.  (JKT  IT.  IK  VuiJ  would  make  an  inexpensive,  aiiiiropriate 
and  useful  |ireseiil   to  any   person.    (JKT    IT. 

The  Pocket  Manual  is  printed  from  jk-c- (n(rfy*(?r/Vr<  plates,  on  tine  tinted  i)aper, 
made  e.rpre.ssl_i/ for  it.  lioiuul  in  Silk  Cloth,  Flexible  Covers,  with  Ink  and  Gold 
Side  Stamp.  Red  Edges.    Price  50  cents. 


THE 

POCKET       IKEAMfUAlM 

OK,   A 

KEY  TO  A  PROFITABLE  OCCUPATIOX  FOR  AXY  PEI{SOX. 
REV.  JOHN  M.  HERON,  A.M.,  EDITOR. 

TWENTY-FIVE  DOLLARS  WORTH  OF  INFORMATION  IN  THE  POCKET. 
CO^^TEIVT!*!. 


How  to  Become  a  Short- Hand 
Writer,  or  eoiiiplete  and  pnK'ticul 
iii^truetioii  in  Pbonogiaphy,  by 
Curtis  Haven,  Presj't  Pliila.  College 
of  Phiiiiographv,  ete. 

How  to  Become  a  Proof-reader,  by 
Joseph  Johnson,  experiem-ed  proof- 
leadi'i-. 

HoAv  to  Become  a  Telegraph  Opera- 
tor, by  J.  W.  Crouse.  Ex  8upt.  Pa. 
R.  li.  Wires.    Eastern  Divisiou. 

How  to  Use  a  Type- Writer,  or  simple 
in-traetions  for  operating  with  a 
Writing  Maeliine.  By  J.  W.  Eaele. 
Pliila.  Manager  Remington  Type- 
Writer  Co. 

How  to  Get  a  Farm  from  U.  S.  By 
AltTHUR  ]?RADEEY,  Atlornpy. 

How  to  Manufacture  Super-phos- 
phate of  Lime  and  Guano.  Uy  31. 
Franz.  Sei.Mitist. 

How  to  Raise  Poultry  or  Poultry  and 
Kggs  as  a  Busine^5s.  Ky  M.  H.  Pen- 
dleton, editor  ■'  Poultry  Messen- 
ger." 

Hon- to  Become  a  Dressmaker.  Plain 
direoti<ins  iov  Icarningto  do  finislied 
work  for  one's  self  or  as  a  business, 
by  Miss  Isabel,  Crawford,  Praetieal 
Dressmaker. 

How^  to  Draw  and  Paint  Flowers,  etc, 
from  nature  or  (vtlierwise.  By  Prof. 
John  Collins,  Artist. 


The  Subscription  Book  Business.    Its 

luflufnee.  Growth.  Desirability,  ete., 
by  W.  H.  Thompson.  Publisher. 

How  to  Become  a  Book-keeper  and 
Practical  In-tructions  for  Bocik- 
keepers.  Bv  Thojia.s  May  Peirie, 
M.A.,  of  the  Peirce  College  of  Busi- 
ness, Phila. 

How  to  Make  out  Reports  and  Audit 
Acc'ts  of  Building  Associations, 
what  Building  Assiiciatious  are  and 
how  ciiiuiui-ted.  By  Thomas  Gaff- 
ney,  Praetieal  Accountant  and 
Building  Association  Expert. 

Directions  for  SiJk  Culture,  ^yith  in- 
structions for  raising  Worms,  spin- 
ning Cocoons,  etc.,  by  Mes.  M.  E. 
Cunningham,  assisted  by  the  silk 
Culture  Association. 

Collecting  Old  Coins.  Tables  of  dif- 
r.-rent  Coins  with  market  prices,  etc. 
By  G.  L.  Fancher.  Numismatist. 

Stamps  CollecHng,  and  How  to  Buy 
and  Sell  Stamps.  Bv  L.  W.  Durbin, 
Philat.'list  aiul  St;unp  Dealer. 

How  to  Make  Soap.  By  Frank  P. 
Harmed,  Chemist  of  tlie  Penii 
Chenii.-ai  Works. 

Ambition,  Enterprise  and  Integrity. 
Bv  R.'V.  John  M.  Heron,  A.M. 

Table  of  Wages  by  the  Month.  Fr<im 
the  American  Home  and  Farm  Cy- 
clopaedia. 


Evert  Article,  with  the  exception  of  one  or  two  of  the  less  import.int  ones, 
is  original,  and  has  been  prepared  with  tlie  utmost  care  bv  a  pers.m  of  ;jnr- 
ticular  experience,  reputation  and  ability  for  the  subject.  So  much  oriijinal 
matter  and  no  able  a  corps  of  writers  teas  never  before  presented  in  a  book  of 
the  size  and  price. 

ILLUSTRATIONS.  Several  articles  Lave  been  illustrated  at  a  heavy  ex- 
pens.>.  The  lessons  in  short  hand  were  produced  bv  photo-engraving  from 
pen  drarrings  16  times  the  size.  There  are  some  25  of  these.  Prof.  Collins' 
and  Attorney  Bradley's  articles  are  most  tastily  and  beautifullu  illustrated. 

The  skill  of  the  engraver  has  been  required  in  rendering  complete  several 
other  features. 

The  Pocket  Manual  is  printed  on  the  finest  rose  tint  paper,  made  expressly 
for  it.  from  new  and  perfect  plates,  icith  a  rule  around  each  page,  contains  2-2i 
pages. 

Price,  Bound  in  Finest  English  Cloth,  Red  Edges.  Gold  Side  Stamp,  50  cents. 


A  New  and  Live  Book  on  the  Gun. 

Just  Published.    Price  75  cents,  in  cloth. 

PLAIN    DIRECTIONS 

FOR   ACQUIRrNO  THE   ART   OF 

SHOOTING  ON  THE  WING. 

With  Useful  Hints  concerning  all  that  ralateb  to  Guns  and  Shooi 

'ng.  and  particularly  in  regard  to  the  art  of  Loading  so  af 

to  Kill.      To  which  has  been  added    several  Valuable 

and  hitherto  Secret  Recipes,   of    Great  Practical 

Importance  to  the  Sportsman. 

By  an    old    GAMEKEETER. 

Sen!  free  vy  mail  on  receipt  of  price. 


Opinionf  of  the  f^re^t. 

Tlie  directions  are  bo  plain  that  they  f>annot  well  be  mistaken, 
and  they  are  expressed  in  the  fewest  p  jssible  words. —  TSnf,  Field 
and  Farm. 

Facing  the  title-page  is  one  of  the  handsomest,  best-executed 
woodcnts,  we  have  ever  seen.  It  is  entitled  '"Tlie  Wounded 
ynipe,"  and  almost  <  qnals  a  steel  engraving. — Baptist  Union. 

xi'rom  its  pages  we  should  think  even  the  most  experienced 
sportsman  might  derive  some  new  ideas,  while  the  beginner  will 
"nd  it  an  invaluable  assistant. —  Country  Gentleman. 

For  concise  instructions  as  1o  how  to  shoot,  to  select,  load, 
iarry,  and  keep  a  qun  in  order,  'tc,  it  cannot  bo  surpassed.— 
Weslern  Hural. 

1  pleasantly  written,  and,  it  seems,  to  us,  correct  and  practical 
treatise  on  the  sportsman's  art;  a  modest  little  book,  but  one  from 
the  reading  of  wliich  a  good  deal  ol  the  right  kind  of  knowlee/- 
is  to  be  gained. — Appleton^s  Jouiiial 

A  practical  and  well-written  han-lbook,  eppecially  adapted  for 
ine  use  of  young  sportsmen,  as  it  {Jves  sensiblu  advice  on  thr 
manipulation  of  firearms,  and  the  ruJes  and  ctiquettG  of  the  field 
ScierUiJic  Aniei-ican. 


The    Only    Practical    Book    Piiblislied    on    this    Subjed. 

THE    PISTOL 

A?  A 

WEAPON  OF  DEFENCE, 

In  the  House  and  on  the  £oad> 
12mo.    Cloth.    50  cents. 


This  ■work  aims  to  instrtict  the  peaceable  au  J  law-abiding  citizeng  in  the 
best  means  of  protecting  themselves  from  the  attacks  of  the  bmtal  and 
the  lawless.  Its  contents  are  as  follows:  The  Pistol  as  a  Weapon  of  De- 
fence— The  Carrying  of  Fire-Arms — Different  kinds  of  Pistols  in  Market; 
how  to  Choose  a  Pistol — Ammunition,  different  kinds;  Powder,  Caps, 
Bullets,  Copper  Cartridges,  etc. — Best  form  of  Bullet — How  to  Load- 
Best  charge  for  Pistols — How  to  regulate  the  Charge — Care  of  the  Pistol; 
how  to  clean  it — How  to  handle  and  carry  the  Pistol — How  to  Learn  to 
Shoot — Practical  use  of  the  Pistol;  how  to  Protect  yourself  and  how  to 
Disable  your  antagonist. 

"No  man  is  fit  to  keep  house  who  is  not  fit  to  defend  it." — Eenry  Ward 
Beecher. 

"  So  long  as  rogues  cannot  be  prevented  from  carrying  weapons,  honest 
men  do  not  consult  their  own  safety  and  the  public  good  by  totally  dis- 
carding them." — liecorder  Hacketl, 

"  Such  I  hold  to  be  the  genuine  use  of  gunpowder;  that  it  makes  all  mcL 
alike  call  (or  strong.)" — Carlyle. 

For  Sale  by  all  Newsdealers,  or  Sent  postpaid  by  Kail  on  receipt  of  price 


THE  WORKSHOP  COMPANION. 

A    Collection    of  Useful    nn<l    Relial»le    ICeeipes, 

Rules,    l*rocesses,    ITIetliods,    "IVviukles, 

and    Pi'actioal    Hints, 

FOR  THE   HOrSEHOLn  ,lJ%'n    THE  SHOP. 


COIVTEINTTS. 

Abyssinian  Gold;— Accidents,  General  Rules; — Alabaster,  hovtowork,  polish  and 
clean; — Alcohol; — Alloys,  rules  for  making,  and  26  recipes; — Amber,  how  to  work, 
polish  and  mend; — Annealing  and  Hardening  glass,  copper,  steel,  etc.; — Arsenical 
Soap; — Arsenical  Powder; — Beeswax,  how  to  bleach; — Blackboards,  how  to  make  ; — 
Brass,  how  to  work,  polish,  color,  varnish,  whiten,  deposit  by  electricity,  clean,  etc., 
etc.; — Brazing  and  Soldering; — Bronzing  brass,  wood,  leather,  etc.; — Burns,  how  to 
cure; — Case-hardening; — Catgut,  how  prepared  ; — Cements,  general  rules  for  using,  and 
56  recipes  for  preparing; — Copper,  working,  welding,  depositing; — Coral,  artificial; — 
Cork,  working; — Crayons  for  Blackboards; — Curling  brass,  iron,  etc.; — Liquid  Cu- 
ticle;— Etching  copper,  steel,  glass; — Eye,  accidents  to; — Fires,  to  prevent; — Clothes  on 
Fire; — Fireproof  Dresses; — Fly  Papers; — Freezing  Mixtures,  6  recipes; — Fumigating 
Pastils; — Gilding  metal,  leather,  wood,  etc.; — Glass,  cutting,  drilling,  turning  in  the 
lathe,  fitting  stoppers,  removing  tight  stoppers,  powdering,  packing,  imitating  ground 
glass,  washing  glass  vessels,  etc.  ; — Grass,  Dry,  to  stain; — Guns,  to  make  shoot  close, 
to  keep  from  rusting,  to  brown  the  barrels  of,  etc.,  etc.  ; — Handles,  to  fasten  ; — Inks, 
rules  for  selecting  and  preserving,  and  34  recipes  for; — Ink  Eraser; — Inlaying; — Iron, 
forging,  welding,  case-hardening,  zincing,  tinning,  do.  in  the  cold,  brightening,  etc., 
etc. ; — Ivory,  to  work,  polish,  bleach,  etc.  ; — Javelle  Water; — Jewelry  and  Gilded  Ware, 
care  of,  cleaning,  coloring,  etc.  ; — Lacquer,  how  to  make  and  apply; — Laundry  (Jjoss; — 
Skeleton  Leaves; — Lights,  signal  and  colored,  also  for  tableaux,  photography,  etc.,  25 
recipes; — Lubricators,  selection  of,  1  recipes  for; — Marble,  working,  polishing,  clean- 
ing;— Metals,  polishing  : — Mirrors,  care  of,  to  make,  pure  silver,  etc.,  etc.  ; — Nickel, 
to  plate  with  without  a  battery; — Noise,  prevention  of; — Painting  Bright  Metals; — 
Paper,  adhesive,  barometer,  glass,  tracing,  transfer,  waxed,  etc.; — Paper,  to  clean,  take 
creases  out  of,  remove  water  stains,  mount  drawing  paper,  to  prepare  for  varnishing, 
etc.,  etc. ; — Patina; — Patterns,  to  trace; — Pencils,  inde'ible; — Pencil  Marks,  to  fix; — 
Pewter; — Pillows  for  Sick  Room,  cheap  and  good  ;--Pla;ier-of- Paris,  how  to  work  ; — 
Poisons,  antidotes  for,  12  recipes; — Polishing  Powders,  preparation  and  >ise  of  (six 
pages); — Resins,  thuir  properties,  etc.; — Saws,  how  to  sharpen: — Sieves; — Shellac, 
properties  and  uses  of; — Silver,  properties  of,  oxidized,  old,  cleaning,  to  remove  ink 
stains  from,  to  dissolve  from  plated  goods,  etc.,  etc. ; — Silvering  metals,  leather,  iron, 
etc.  ; — Size,  preparation  of  various  kinds  of; — Skins,  tanning  and  curing,  do  with  hair 
on; — Stains,  to  remove  from  all  kinds  of  goods; — Steel,  tempering  and  working  (six 
pages); — Tin,  properties,  methods  of  working; — Varnish,  21  recipes  for; — Varnishing, 
directions  for; — Voltaic  Batteries: — Watch,  care  of; — Waterproofing,  7  recipes  for; — 
Whitewash; — Wood  Floors,  waxing,  .staining,  and  polishing; — Wood,  polishing; — 
Wood,  staining,  17  recipes; — Zinc,  to  pulverize,  black  varnish  for. 

164  closely-printed  payos.  neatly  bound.     Sent  bv  mail  for  ;{0  cents 

(postage  stamps  received). 


RECENT    ISSUES. 
Collodio-Etching, 

A  Guide  to  Collodio-Etching.  By  Rev.  Benjamin 
Hartley.  Illustrated  by  the  Author.  12mo.,  Cloth, 
Neat,      -------        $1.00. 

This  voluma  gives  complete  and  miuute  iustruetious  for  oue  of  the 
most  delightful  of  Amateur  Arts.  It  is  fully  illustrated  by  wood-cubs 
of  all  the  apparatus  used  (which  is  very  simple  and  easily  made), 
and  also  by  actual  photo  prints  of  the  etchings  themselves. 


Scientific  Experiments. 

Easy  Experiments  in  Chemistry  anil  Natural  Philoso- 
phy. For  Educational  Institutions  of  all  Grades,  and 
for  Private  Students.  By  G.  Dallas  Lind,  Author 
of  "Methods  of  Teaching  in  Country  Schools,"  and 
"Normal  Outlines  of  the  Common  School  Branches." 
Paper,  -  -  -  -  -  -    40  cents. 

This  book,  besides  being  a  valuable  guide  for  the  teacher  and 
student,  will  afford  scieutiiic  amus-Uicnt  suHicieut  to  brighten  the 
evenings  of  a  whol(^  winter. 


The  Builders  Guide  and  Estimator's  Price  Book. 

Being  a  Comjnlation  of  Current  Prices  of  Lumber, 
Hardware,  Glass,  Plumbers'  Supplies,  Paints,  Slates, 
Stones,  Limes,  Cements,  Bricks,  Tin,  and  other  Building 
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the  Several  Kinds  of  Work  Required  in  Building.  To- 
gether with  Prices  of  Doors,  Frames,  Sashes,  Stairs, 
Mouldings,  Newels,  and  other  Machine  Work.  To  «vhich 
is  appended  a  large  number  of  Building  Rules,  Data, 
Tables,  and  Useful  Memoranda,  wiin  a  Glossary  of 
Architectural  and  Building  Terms.  By  Fred.  T.  Hodg- 
son, Editor  of  "  The  Builder  and  Wood-Worker," 
Author  of  "The  Steel  Square  and  Its  Uses,"  etc.,  etc. 
12mo.,  Cloth,       ......    $2.00. 


Celestial  Objects  for  Common  Telescopes. 

By  the  Rev.  T.  W.  Webb,  M.A.,  F.R.A.S.  Fourth  Edi- 
tion, Eevised  and  Greatly  Enlarged.  Fully  Illustrated 
with  Engravings  and  a  large  Map  of  the  Moon. 

Cloth, $3.00 

This  edition  has  been  made  for  us  by  the  English  publishers,  and 
is  in  every  respect  the  same  as  the  Euglisli  edition.  Tho  work  itself 
is  too  well  known  to  require  commendation  at  our  hands.  Wo  one 
that  owns  even  the  commonest  kind  of  a  telescope  can  afford  to  do 
without  it 

"  Many  things,  deemed  invisible  to  secondary  instruments,  are 
plain  enough  to  one  who  '  knows  how  to  see  them.'  "—Smyth. 

"  When  an  object  is  once  discerned  by  a  superior  power,  an  inferior 
one  will  suffice  to  see  it  afterwards."— Snt.  W.  PLeksciiel. 

Chemical  History  of  the  Six  Days  of  Creation. 

By  John  Phin,  Editor  of   the  "  American  Journal  of 
Microscopy"  and  the  "Young  Scientist." 
12  ino..  Cloth,  -  -  -  -  75  cents. 

lu  this  volume  an  attempt  is  made  to  trace  the  evolution  of  our 
globe  from  tiie  primeval  state  of  nebulous  mist,  "  without  form  and 
void,"  and  existing  in  "  darkness,"  or  witli  an  entire  absoiice  of  the 
manifestations  of  the  pliysical  forces,  to  the  condition  in  whicli  it  was 
litted  to  become  tlie  habitiition  of  man.  Wliile  the  statements  and 
conclusions  are  rigidly  scientific,  it  gives  some  exceedingly  novel 
views  of  a  rather  hackneyed  subject. 

Ponds  and  Ditches. 

A  Work  on  Pond  Life  and  Kindred  Objects.     By  M.  C. 

Cooke,  M.A.,  LL.D.    Cloth,  12mo.,         -  -    75  cents. 

This  is  a  most  interesting  volume  by  a  well-known  author  and 
microscopist.  It  is  very  freely  illustrated  wilii  engravings  of  tlie 
objects  usually  found  in  pond  water. 

Microscopical  Examination  of  Drinking  Water. 

A  Guide  to  the  Microscopical  Examination  of  Drinking 
Water.    By  J.  D.  McDonald. 
8vo.,  Cloth,  21  plates,  -  -  -  -    $2.75 


dements  and  Glue. 

A  Practical  Treatise  ou  tlie  Preparation  and  Use  of  all 
Kinds  of  Cements,  Glue,  and  Paste.  By  John  Phin, 
Editor  of  the  "Young  Scientist"  and  the  "American 
Journal  of  Microscopy." 

Stiff  Covers, 25  cents. 

This  is  tlie  first  of  a  Series  of  '  Work  Manuals,"  which  are  inteuclod 
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use.  It  contains  nearly  200  recipes  for  the  preparation  of  cements  for 
almost  every  conceivable  purpose. 

The  Amateur's  Hand-Book  of  Practical  Information. 

For  the  Workshop  and  the  Laboratory.  Second  Edition. 
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This  is  a  handy  little  book,  containing  just  the  information  needed 
by  Amateurs  in  the  Woi'kshop  and  Laboratorj'.  Directions  for 
making  Alloys,  Fusible  Metals,  Cements,  Glues,  etc. ;  and  for  Solder- 
ing, Brazing,  Lacquering,  Bronzing,  Staining  and  Polishing  Wood. 
Tempering  Tools,  Cutting  and  Working  Glass,  Varnishing,  Silvering, 
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The  New  Edition  conttiius  extended  directions  for  preparing  Polish- 
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Five  Hundred  and  Seven  Mechanical  Movements. 

Embracing  all  those  which  are  Most  Important  in  Dy- 
namics, Hydraulics,  Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics,  Steam 
Engines,  Mill  and  Other  Gearing,  Presses,  Horology  and 
Miscellaneous  Machinery;  and  including  Many  Move- 
ments never  before  published,  and  several  of  which  have 
only  recently  come  into  use.  By  Henry  T.  Brown,  editor 
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This  work  is  a  perfect  Cyclopaedia  of  Mechanical  Inventions,  which 
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available.  Every  mechanic  that  hopes  to  be  more  than  a  rule-of- 
thumb  worker  ought  to  have  a  copy. 


How  to  Put  Up  a  Lightning  Rod. 

Plain  Directions  for  the  Construction  and  Erection  of 
Liglitning  Bods.  By  John  Phin,  C.E.,  editor  of  the 
"  Young  Scientist,"  author  of  "  Chemical  History  of  the 
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lowing its  directions,  any  ordinarily  skilful  mechanic  can  put  up  a  rod 
that  will  affoi'd  perfect  protection,  and  that  will  not  infringe  any  j)ateut. 
Every  owner  of  a  house  or  barn  ought  to  procure  a  copy. 

Lectures  in  a  Workshop. 

By  T.  P.  Pemberton,  formerly  Associate  Editor  of  the 
"Technologist;"  Author  of  "The  Student's  Illustrated 
Guide  to  Practical  Draughting."  With  an  appendix  con- 
taining the  famous  i>apers  by  Whitworth  "On  Plane 
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papers  by  Whitworth,  now  flr.st  made  accessible  to  the  American 
reader,  form  the  basis  of  our  modern  systems  of  accurate  work. 

Mechanical  Draughting  for  Self-Taught  Students. 

The  Student's  Illustrated  Guide  to  Practical  Draught- 
ing. A  series  of  Practical  Instructions  for  Machinists, 
Mechanics,  Apprentices,  and  Students  at  Engineering 
Establishments  and  Technical  Institutes.  By  T.  P. 
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]ieer.  Illustrated  with  Numerous  Engravings.  Cloth 
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This  is  a  simple  but  thorough  book  by  a  draughtsman  of  twonty-flvc 
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A  New  Book  for  BeO'Keepers. 

A  Dictionary  of  Practical  Apiculture,  giving  the  correct  mean- 
ing of  nearly  Five  Hundred  Terms,  according  to  the  usage  of 
the  best  writers.  Intended  as  a  Guide  to  Uniformity  of  Ex- 
pression amongst  Bee-Keepers.  With  Numerous  Illustra- 
tions, Notes,  and  Practical  Hints.  By  John  Phin,  Author  of 
"How  to  Use  the  Microscope, "  etc.  Editor  of  the  "Young 
Scientist."     Price,  Cloth,  Gilt,  50  cts. 

This  work  gives  not  only  the  correct  meaning  of  five  hundred  different 
■words,  specially  useil  in  bee-keepiug,  but  an  immense  amount  of  valuable 
information  under  the  ditfereut  headings.  The  labor  expended  upon  it  has 
been  very  great,  the  definitions  having  been  gathered  from  the  mode  in 
which  the  words  are  used  by  our  best  writers  on  bee-keepiug,  and  from  the 
Imperial,  Richardson's,  Skeat's,  Webster's,  Worcester's  and  other  English 
Dictionaries.  The  technical  information  relating  to  matters  connected  with 
bee-keepiug  has  been  gathered  from  the  Technical  Dictiouaries  of  Brande, 
Muspratt,  Ure,  Wagner,  Watts,  and  others.  Under  the  heads  Bee,  Comb, 
Glucose,  Honey,  Race,  Species,  Sugar,  Wax  and  others,  it  briugs  together  a 
large  number  of  important  facts  and  figures  which  are  now  scattered 
through  oiu-  bee-literature,  and  thi-ough  costly  scientific  works,  and  are  not 
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proper  head. 

How  to  Become  a  Good  Mechanic. 

Intended  as  a  Practical  Gui<le  to  Self-taught  Men;  telling 
What  to  Study  ;  Wliat  Books  to  Use  ;  How  to  Begin  ;  What 
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how  to  carry  on  such  a  Course  of  Self-instruction  as  will  en- 
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This  is  not  a  book  of  "  goodj'-goody  "  advice,  neither  is  it  an  advertise- 
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practical  advice  in  regard  to  acquiring  that  knowledge  which  alone  can 
enable  a  yoimg  man  engaged  in  any  profession  or  occupation  connected 
witli  the  industrial  arts  to  attain  a  position  higlier  than  that  of  a  mere 
workman. 

The  Horse. 

A  Treatise  on  the  Horse  and  his  Diseases.     By  J.  B.  Kendall, 

M.D.    76  Engravings.     Paper, 20  cts. 

A  Treatise  giving  an  index  of  diseases,  and  the  symptoms;  cause  and 
treatment  of  each,  a  table  giving  all  the  principal  drugs  used  for  the  horse, 
with  the  ordinarj'  dose,  effects  and  antidote  when  a  poison;  a  table  with  an 
engraving  of  the  horse's  teeth  at  different  ages,  with  rules  for  telling  the 
age  of  the  horse ;  a  valuable  collection  of  recipes,  and  much  valuable  in- 
formation. 


The  Engineer's  Slide  Rule  and  Its  Applications. 

A  Complete  lavestigation  of  the  Principles  upon  which 
the  Slide  Rule  is  Constructed,  togetlier  with  tlie  Method 
of  its  Application  to  all  the  Purposes  of  the  Practical 
Mechanic.    By  William  Toukes.         -  -       25  cents. 

Rhymes  of  Science :   Wise  and  Otherwise. 

By  O.  W.  Holmes,  Bret  Harte,  Ingoldsl^y,  Prof.  Forbes, 
Prof.  J.  W.  McQ.  Rankine,  Hon.  R.  W.  Raymond,  and 
others.     With  Illustrations.     Cloth,  Gilt  Title,  50  cents. 

We  advise  ull  our  readers  iuto  whose  souls  the  sunlight  of  fuu  ever 
enters  to  purchase  this  little  book.  "Making  light  of  eereous  things" 
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genius  which  can  balance  the  ponderosity  of  an  ichthyosaur  upon  the 
delicate  point  of  a  euphonious  rhyme,  or  bear  aloft  a  bulky  leiito- 
rhyuciis  on  the  sparkling  foam  of  a  soul-stirring  love  ditty,  is  worthy- 
worthy  of  a  purchaser.— P7aZade?p7iia  Medical  Nexos. 

Instruction  in  the  Art  of  Wood  Engraving. 

A  Manual  of  Instruction  in  the  Art  of  Wood  Enj^ravinj?; 
with  a  Description  of  the  Necessary  Tools  and  Apparatus, 
and  Concise  Directions  for  their  Use ;  Explanation  of 
the  Terms  Used,  and  the  Methods  Employed  for  Pro- 
ducing the  Various  Classes  of  Wood  Engravings.  By 
S.  E.  Fuller.  Fully  Illustrated  with  Engravings  by  the 
author,  separate  sheets  of  engravings  for  transfer 
and  practice  being  added.  New  Edition,  Neatly 
Bound,         --....       30  cents. 

What  to  Do  in  Case  of  Accident. 

What  to  Do  and  How  to  Do  It  in  Case  of  Accident.  A 
Book  for  Everybody.  12  mo..  Cloth,  Gilt  Title,  50  cents. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  books  ever  published.  It  tells  exMctly 
what  to  do  in  case  of  ac(!idents,  such  as  Severe  Cuts,  Sprains,  Disloca- 
tions, Broken  Bones,  Burns  with  Fire,  Scalds,  Burns  with  Corrosive 
Chemicals,  Sunstroke,  Suffocation  by  Foul  Air,  Hanging,  Drowning, 
Frost-Bite,  Fainting,  Stings,  Bites.  Starvation,  Lightning,  Poisons, 
Accidents  from  Machinery  and  from  the  Falling  of  ScalToldiug,  Gun- 
shot Wounds,  etc.,  etc.  It  ought  to  be  in  every  house,  for  young  and 
old  are  liable  to  accident,  and  the  directions  given  in  this  book  might 
be  the  means  of  saving  many  a  valuable  life. 


How  to  See  with  the  Microscope. 

Being  Useful  Hints  Connected  with  the  Selection  and 
Use  of  the  Instrument;  also  Some  Discussion  of  the 
Claims  and  Capacity  of  Modern  High-Angled  Objec- 
tives, as  Compared  with  those  of  Medium  Aperture. 
With  Instructions  as  to  the  Selection  and  Use  of  Amer- 
ican Object-Glasses  of  Wide  Apertures.  By  J.  Edwards 
Smith,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Histology  and  Microscopy; 
Fellow  of  the  Eoyal  Microscopical  Society ;  Correspond- 
ing Member  San  Francisco,  Dunkirk,  and  other  Micro- 
scopical Societies,  etc.,  etc.  Second  Edition.  Hand- 
somely Illustrated,        -  -  -  -  -     $2.00 

Prof.  Smitli  is  well  known  a,s  the  Diost  export  niauipulator  in  this 
country,  as  rcfj^ards  objectives  of  wide  aperiure,  and  in  this  volume 
lie  f^ives,  iu  a  clear  and  practical  manuer,  all  tlie  directions  neces- 
sary to  attaiu  tlic  surprisiuj?  results  wliich  he  has  acliieveii.  No 
niicroscopist  tiiat  uses  anj'tliiug  better  than  French  triplets  can 
allbrd  to  be  without  it. 

Marvels  of  Pond  Life. 

A  Year's  Microscopic  Recreations  Among  the  Polyps, 
Infusoria,  Rotifers,  AVater  Bears  and  Polyzoa,.  By 
Henry  J.  Slack,  F.G.S.,  F.R.M.S.,  etc.  Second  Edition. 
Seven  Full  Page  Plates  and  Numerous  Wootl  Engravings 
in  the  Text.    12mo.,  Cloth,  Gilt,     -  -  -       $1.00 

Leidy  on  Rhizopods. 

The  Fresh-Water  Rhizopods  of  North  America.  By 
Joseph  Leidy,  M.D.,  Pi'ofessor  of  Anatomy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  and  of  Natural  History  in 
Swarthmore  College,  Pennsylvania.  Contains  -18  quarto 
l)lates  of  drawings  of  Magnified  Rhizopods,  beautifully 
colored.     1  vol.,  4to.,  Cloth,    -  -  -  -     $5.00 

Catalogue  of  Medical  Journals 

We  have  just  issued  a  Complete  List  of  all  the  Medical 
Journals  published  in  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
with  Addresses,  Prices,  Clubbing  Rates,  Editors'  Names, 
etc.  This  list  is  corrected  from  time  to  time,  so  as  to 
embody  the  latest  information,  and  will  be  mailed  free 
to  any  one  who  sends  for  it. 


Section  Cutting. 

A  Practical  Guide  to  the  Preparation  and  Mounting  ci 
/Sections  for  the  Microscope ;  Special  Prominence  being 
tjiven  to  the  Subject  of  Animal  Sections  By  Sylvester 
'  jilarsh.  Beprinted  from  the  London  edition.  With 
Illustrations.    12mo.,  Cloth,  Gilt  Title,  -     75  centa 

This  is  undoubtedly  the  most  thoi'ough  treatise  estani;  upon  sectioi 
cutting  in  all  its  details.  The  American  edition  has  been  greatlj 
enlarged  by  valuable  explanatory  notes,  and  also  by  extended  direc- 
tions, illustrated  with  engravings,  for  selecting  and  sharpening 
knives  and  razors. 

A  Book  for  Beginners  with  the  Microscope. 

Being  an  abridgment  of  "  Practical  Hints  on  the  Selection 
and  Use  of  the  Microscope."  ByJohnPhin.   Fully  illus- 
trated, and  neatly  and  strongly  bound  in  boards.    30  cts. 
This  book  was  prepared  for  the  use  of  those  who,  having  no  know- 
ledge of  the  use  of  the  microscope,  or,  indeed,  of  jiny  scientific  appar- 
atus, desire  simple  and  practical  instiiictiou  in  tlie  best  methixis  oJ 
managing  tlie  instrument  and  preparing  objects. 

How  to  Use  the  Microscope. 

"  Practical  Hints  on  the  Selection  and  Use  of  the  Micro- 
scrope."  Intended  for  Beginners.  By  John  Phin, 
Editor  of  the  "American  Journal  of  Microscopy." 
Fourth  Edition.  Greatly  enlarged,  with  over  80  engrav- 
ings in  the  text,  and  G  full-page  engravings,  printed  on 
heavy  tint  paper.     I'imo.,  cloth,  gilt  title,  -         $1.00 

The  Microscope. 

By  Andrew  Boss.     Fully    Illustrated.     12mo.,    Cloth, 

Gilt  Title. 75  cents. 

This  is  the  celebrated  article  contributed  by  Andrew  Koss  to  the 
"Penny  Cycloppedia,"  and  quoted  so  frequently  by  writers  on  the 
Microscope.  Carpenter  and  Hogg,  in  the  last  editions  of  their  works 
on  the  Microscope,  and  Brooke,  in  his  treatise  on  Natui'al  Philoso- 
phy, all  refer  to  this  article  as  the  best  source  for  full  and  clear 
information  in  regard  to  the  principles  upon  which  the  modern 
achromatic  Microscope  is  constructed.  It  should  be  in  the  library 
of  every  person  to  whom  the  Microscope  is  more  than  a  toy.  It,  ig 
written  in  simDle  language,  free  from  abstruse  technicftlitie^. 


The  Microscopist's  Annual  for  1879. 

Contains  List  of  all  the  Microscopical  Societies  in  the 
country,  with  names  of  officers,  days  of  meeting,  etc. ; 
etc. ;  Alphabetical  and  Classiiied  Lists  of  all  the  Manu- 
facturers of  Microscopes  and  Objectives,  Dissecting  Ap- 
paratus, Microscopic  Objects,  Materials  for  Microscopists, 
in  Europe  and  America,  etc.,  etc. ;  Postal  Kates,  Rules 
and  Regulations,  prepared  expressly  for  microscopists ; 
Weights  and  Measures,  with  tables  and  rules  for  the  con- 
version of  different  measures  into  each  other;  Custom 
Duties  and  Regulations  in  regard  to  Instruments  and 
Books ;  Value  of  the  Moneys  of  all  Countries  in  U.  S. 
Dollars ;  Value  of  the  Lines  on  Nobert's  Test  Plates ; 
Table  of  Moller's  Probe  Platte,  with  the  number  of  lines 
to  inch  on  the  several  diatoms,  etc.,  etc. ;  Focal  Value 
of  the  Objectives  of  those  makers  who  Number  their 
Objectives  (Hartnack,  Nachet,  etc.);  Focal  Value  of  the 
Eye-pieces  of  different  makers ;  Magnifying  Power  of 
Eye-pieces  and  Objectives,  etc.,  etc.  The  whole  form- 
ing an  indispensable  companion  for  every  working  micro- 
scopist.    Limp  Cloth,  Gilt        -  -  -       25  cents. 

4®" The  "  Annual"  for  1880  is  in  a  fonvard  stab' of  preparation,  and 
will  be  uniform  in  size  and  price  witli  that  for  1879. 

Microscope  Objectives. 

The  Angulai  Aperture  of  Microscope  Objectives.  By 
Dr.  George  E.  Blackham.  8vo.,  Cloth.  Eighteen  full 
page  illustrations  printed  on  extra  fine  paper.  $1.25. 
Sold  only  by  Subscription. 
This  is  the  elaborate  paper  on  Angular  Aperture,  read  by  Dr. 
Blacliham  before  the  Microscopical  Congress,  held  at  Indianapolis. 

Kutzing  on  Diatoms. — Nearly  ready. 

The  Siliceous  Shelled  Bacillariae  or  Diatomaceae;  the 
History  of  their  Discovery  and  Classification  ;  their  Dis- 
tribution, Collection,  and  Life-History.  By  Friedrich 
Traugott  Kutzing.  Translated  from  the  German  by  Prof. 
Hamilton  L.  Smith,  of  Geneva,  N.  Y.  12mo.,  Cloth, 
Gilt, 50  cents. 


FOURTH  EDITION.  Greatly  Enlarged,  with  over  80  {lliisirations  in  the  Ttxt 
a7id  (>  full  page  Engraz'ings,  printed  on  Heavy  Tint  Paper.  i  Vol.  i^mo.,  240 
pi.ges.     Neatly  Bound  in  Cloth,   Gilt  Title.     Price^i.oo. 

HOW  TO  USE  THE  MICROSCOPE. 

A   SIMPLE   AND    PRACTICAL   BOOK,    INTENDED    FOR   BEGINNERS. 

Ev  JOHN  PHIN, 
Editor  0/  "  The  American  yojirnal  0/ Microscopy." 


CONDENSED  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

The  Microscope. — What  it  Is;  What  it  Does;  Different  Kinds  of  Microscopes; 
1  rinciplesof  its  Construct  on  ;  Names  of  the  Different  Parts. 

Simple  Microscopes. — Hand  Magnifiers;  Doublets;  Power  of  Two  or  More 
Lenses  When  U-ed  Together;  Stanhope  Lens;  Coddington  Lens;  Achromatic 
Doublets  and  Triplets  ;  Twenty-five  Cent  Microscopes — and  How  to  Make  Them  ; 
Penny  Microscopes,  to  Show  Eels  in  Paste  and  Vinegar. 

Dissecting  Microscopes. — Essentials  of  a  Good  Dissecting  Microscope. 

Compound  Microscopes. — Cheap  Foieign  Stands;  The  Ross  Model;  The  Jackson 
Model;  The  Continental  Model;  The  New  American  Model;  Cheap  American 
Stands;  The  Binocular  Microscope;  The  Binocular  Eye-piece;  The  Inverted  Micro- 
scope; Lithological  Microscopes;  The  Aquarium  Microscope;  Microscopes  for 
Special  Purpo-es;    "Class"  Microscopes. 

Objectives. — Defects  of  Common  Lenses;  Spherical  Aberration:  Chromatic  do.  ; 
Corrected  Objectives;  Defining  Power  ;  Achromatism;  Aberration  of  Form  ;  Flatness 
of  Field;  Angular  Aperture;  Penetrating  Power  :  Working  Distance ;  Immersion  and 
"Homogeneous"  Lenses;   Duplex  Fronts;   French  Triplets,  etc.,  etc. 

Testing  Objectives.  —  General  Rules;  Accepted  Standards — Diatoms,  Ruled 
Lines,  Artificial  Star;   Podura;   Nobert's  Lines;   Moller's  Probe  Platte,  etc.,  etc. 

Selection  of  a  Microscope  — Must  be  Adapted  to  Requirements  and  Skill  of 
User;   Microscopes  for  Botany;   For  Physicians;  For  Students. 

Accessory  Apparatus. — Stage  Forceps;  Forceps  Carrier;  Plain  Slides:  Concave 
Slides;  Watch-Glass  Holder;  Animalcule  Cage;  Zoophyte  Trough:  The  Weber  Slide; 
The  Cell-Trough;  The  Compressorium  ;  Gravity  Compressorium ;  Growing  Slides; 
Frog  Plate;   Table;   Double  Nose-piece. 

Illumination. — Sun-Light;   Artificial  Light — Candles,  Gas,  Lamps,  etc.,  etc. 

Illumination  of  Opaque  Objects. — Bulls-Eye  Condenser;  Side  Reflector;  The 
Lieberkuhn;   The  Parabolic  Reflector;  Vertical  Illuminators. 

Illumination  of  Transparent  Objects. — Direct  and  Reflected  Light;  Axial  or 
Central  Ligh  ;  Oblique  Light ;  The  Achromatic  Condenser;  The  Webster  Condenser, 
and  How  to  Usei' ;  Wenham's  Reflex  Illuminator,  and  How  to  Use  it;  The  Wenham 
Prism:  The  "Half-Button;"  The  Woodward  Illuminator:  Tolles'  Illuminating 
Traverse  Lens;  The  Spot  Lens ;   The  Parabolic  Illuminator;  Polarized  Light. 

How  to  Use  the  Microscope. — General  Rules;  Hints  to  Beginners. 

How  to    Use   Objectives   of   Large  Aperture. — Collar-Correction,  etc. 

Care  of  the  Microscope. — Should  be  Kept  Covered;  Care  of  Objectives:  Pre- 
cautions tc  be  Used  when  Corrosi/e  Vapors  and  Liquids  are  Employed;  To  Protect 
th  Objectives  from  Vapors  which  Corrode  Glass;  Cleaning  the  Objectives;  Cleaning 
th    Brass  Work 

Collecting  Obtects. — Where  to  Find  Objects ;  What  to  Look  for;  How  to  Capture 
Them. 

The  Prepar.^tk'n  and  Examination  of  Objects. — Cutting  Thin  Sections  of 
So''  Substances;  Valentine's  Knife ;  Sections  of  Wood  and  Bone;  Improved  Section 
Cutter;  Sections  of  Rock;  Knives;  Scissors;  Needles:  Dissecting  Pans  and  Dishes  ; 
Dissecting  Microscopes;  Separation  of  Deposits  fiom  Liquids;  Preparing  Whole 
Insects;  Feet,  Eyes,  Tongues,  Wings,  etc  ,  of  Insects;  Use  of  Chemical  Tests;  Liquids 
for  Moistening  Objects:  Refractive  Powers  of  Different  Liquids  ;  lod-Seruni  ;  Artitici;>' 
-od-Serum;    Covers  for  Keeping  Out  Dust:   Errors  in  Microscopic  Observations. 

Preservative  Processes. — General  Principles;   Preservative  Media. 

Apparatus  for  Mounting  Objects. — Slides;  Covers;  Cells;  Turn-Tables,  etc. 

Cements  and  Varnishes. — General  Rules  for  Using. 

Mounting  Objects. — Mounting  Transparent  Object-.  Dry;  in  Balsam:  in  Liquids 
Whole  Insects;  How  to  Get  Rid  of  Air-Bubbles ;   Mounting  Opaque  Objects. 

Finishing  the  Slides. — Cabinets;  Maltwood  Finder;  Microscopical  Fallacies. 


G-ENESIS   AND   GEOLOGY. 


The  only  really  scientific  and  logical  system  of  harmony  betweei 
Genesis  and  Geology  is  to  be  found  in  a  little  work,  just  pvfblished, 
and  entitled 

THE  CHEMICAL  HISTORY 

OP 

The  Six  Days  of  Creation. 

BY    JOHN    PHIN,  C.  E., 

1  vol.,  litno.,  cloth.     7S  eenta. 

In  this  work  an  attempt  is  made  to  show  that  the  acconut  given  of  the 
Creation,  in  the  tirst  chapter  of  Genesis,  agrees  UieraHi/  with  the  record 
developed  by  the  investigations  of  moileru  science. 

May  be  ordered  through  any  bookseller.  Single  copies  sent  by  mail, 
on  receipt  of  price, 


T^e  follmcing  are  a  feic  of  tint  Opinions  of  the  I'rexs  : 

This  IB  a  small  book,  but  fiill  of  niattor.  The  autlior  believes  in  tbe  book  of  rSonosis 
as  the 'work  of  Moses,  and  believes  in  tbe  entire  correctness  of  tlie  statements  made 
by  Moses  .in  ret,'ard  to  the  work  of  creation.  He  defends  the  aciMiracy  of  tbe  tirst 
';liai)ter  of  Genesis,  and  defends  it  from  a  scientific  standpoint.  We  think  this  l)ook 
Is  full  of  interest  and  value:  and  as  the  discussions  concerning  the  barmonyof  science 
and 'faith  are  rife  at  the  present  day,  we  commend  the  reaeoninf^s  of  Mr.  Phin  to  tbe 
great  number  of  readers  and  students  who  are  investigatin-,'  tbese  subjects. — The 
/'resOylerian  (Philadelphia), 

The  atithor  gives  a  new  solution  of  this  difficult  question,  and  certainly  presents 
many  very  plausible  arguments  in  support  of  his  theory. — Sunday-Sclmnl  M'orhnan. 

A  very  candid  and  ingenious  essay. — CUrUtian  Union  (H.  W,  Beecher's  paper). 

It  is  a  topic  which  needs  a  calm  and  well-directed  intellect  to  approach,  and  Mr.  Phin 
baa  surrounded  itp  discussion  with  thoughts  of  the  deepest  interest  to  all  minds  seek- 
ing rest  on  this  much  perplexing  question. — Journal  o/tlie  Telegraph. 

The  reasons  and  conclusions  are  clear,  distinct,  and  natural.  The  book  will  interest 
and  instruct,  and  is  intended  to  lead  the  reasoning  mind  to  firmer  faith  in  the  light  oi 
revelation. — A'eio  i'nrk  Glohe. 

No  one  can  read  this  book  without  compensation,  without  becoming  more  thouglitfii! 
concerning  the  phenomena  of  creation ;  and  he  need  lose  none  of  his  reverence  for  the 
supremacy  of  the  Divine  I^w. — Hural  yew-Yorker. 

We  could  say  much  in  commendation  of  Prof.  Phin's  little  book.  An  intelligent 
reader  can  hardly  fail  to  be  interested  in  it,  and  many  might  be  benefited. — Country 
Gentleman. 

The  book  c.in  not  fail  to  interest  even  those  who  do  not  fully  accept  th«  tht>ory  it 
ftdvocates. — Boston  Journal  of  Chemistry. 

It  is  a  new  scientific  view  of  the  matter. — Plirimnlngical  Journal. 

The  book,  although  not  large,  will  prove  exceedingly  interesting  to  all  who  have 
ever  directed  attention  to  this  matter,  and  contains  more  solid  and  suggestive  th'^ugM 
than  many  voluminous  treatises  on  the  subject. — Insurance  .Monitor. 

The  work  is  ingenious  and  original,  and  presents  many  striking  suggestions. — Awri- 
tan  Baptist. 

We  believe  Prot  Phin  has  started  upon  the  correct  basis,  and  his  theory  Is  mainly 
tenable.  ITis  views  are  presented  m  a  Tianner  which,  though  terse,  is  eauily  compr* 
bended. — faterson  Daily  Guardian. 


THE  YOUNG  SCIENTIST, 

A  Practical  Journal  for  Amateurs. 

ISSIJEO  ]fIOr¥THI.Y.  Price  $1.00  per  year. 

It  is  characteristic  of  young  Americans  that  they  want  to  be  doing  something. 
They  are  not  content  with  merely  ^"«ci2v/«^  how  things  are  done,  or  even  with  seeing 
themdoiie;  they  want  to  do  them  themselves.  In  other  words,  they  want  to  experiment. 
Hence  the  wonderful  demand  that  has  sprung  up  for  small  tool  chests,  turnnig  lathes, 
scroUsaws,  wood-carving  tools,  telegraphs,  model  steam  engines,  microscopes,  and  all 
kinds  of  apparatus.  In  nine  cases  out  of  ten,  however,  the  young  workman  finds  it 
difficult  to  learn  how  to  ii>ie  his  tools  or  apparatus  after  he  has  got  them.  It  is  true 
that  we  have  a  large  number  of  very  excellent  text-book^;,  but  these  are  not  just  the 
thing.  What  is  wanted  is  a  living  teacher.  Where  a  living  teacher  cannot  be  found, 
the  next  best  thing  is  a  live  journal,  and  this  we  propose  to  furnish.  And  in  attempting 
this  it  IS  not  our  intention  to  confine  ovirselves  to  mere  practical  directions.  In  these 
days  of  knowledge  and  scientific  culture,  the  "Why"  becomes  as  necessary  as  the 
"How."  The  object  of  the  Young  Scientist  is  to  give  clear  and  easily  followed 
directions  for  performing  chemical,  mechanical  and  other  operations,  as  well  as  simple 
and  accurate  explanations  (  f  the  principles  involved  in  the  various  mechanical  and 
chemical  processes  which  we  shall  imdertake  to  describe. 

The  scope  and  character  of  the  Journal  will  be  better  understood  from  an  inspection 
of  a  few  numbers,  than  from  any  labored  description.  There  are,  however,  some 
features  to  which  we  would  call  special  attention. 

Correspondence. — In  this  department  we  intend  to  place  our  readers  in  communi- 
cation with  ench  other,  and  in  this  way  we  hope  to  secure  for  every  one  just  such  aid 
as  may  be  required  for  any  special  work  on  hand. 

Exchanges. — An  exchange  column,  like  that  which  has  been  such  a  marked  success 
in  the  Journal  of  Microscopy^  will  be  opened  in  the  Young  Scientist.  Yearly  sub- 
scribers who  may  wish  to  exchange  tools,  apparatus,  books,  or  the  products  of  their 
skill,  can  state  what  they  have  to  offer  and  what  they  want,  without  charge.  Buying 
and  selling  must,  of  course,  be  carried  on  in  the  advertising  columns. 

Illustrations. — The  Young  Scientist  is  finely  illustrated,  and  some  of  the  en- 
gravings which  we  have  published  challenge  comparison  with  those  given  in  the  most 
expensive  journals. 

Where  three  or  more  subscribe  together  for  the  Journal,  we  offer  the  following 
liberal  terms: 

3  copies  for $2.50  I     7  copies  for $5-50 

5       "       " 400  I  10       "       " 7.00 

^]V    EXTKA^OROlNAmir    OFFER. 

The  examination  of  a  few  copies  of  the  Young  Scientist  would  give  a  clearer  idea 
of  its  scope  and  character  than  pages  of  description  and  promises,  and  therefore  we 
propose  to  send  to  any  address  the  three  first  numbers  of  the  vear  kok 
twenty  cents. 

B^OI^    INTUIMBERS    AISTX)    VOLUJMES. 

As  the  pages  of  the  Young  Scientist  have  been  electrotyped,  we  can  supply  any 
back  number  or  volume.  The  prices  for  numbers  and  volumes  prior  to  1883  are: 
single  numbers,  six  cents;  volumes  in  loose  numbers,  fifty  cents;  volumes  neatly  bound 
in  cloth,  with  gilt  titles  on  the  back,  $1.00  each.  At  these  prices  the  vohmies  and 
numbers  will  be  sent  free  to  those  ordering  them.  Beginning  with  January,  j88^,  the 
Young  Scientist  was  doubled  in  price  and  nearly  trebled  in  size. 

I^I^ElVrilLTlMS. 

A  list  of  miscellaneous  premiiuns  will  be  sent  to  any  one  asking  for  It.  We  offer 
specially  liberal  terms  on  Book  Premiums  and  clubbing  rates  with  other  journals. 

Advertisements,  30  cents  per  line,  agate  measurement.  Liberal  discount  on  large  01 
continued  advertisements.     No  advertisement  inserted  for  less  than  $1.50. 

Address  YOUNC;  S(!IENTIST,  New  York. 


FOP. 

Fret  or  Scroll  Sawyers. 


MR.  F.  T.  HODGSON,  whose  admirable  series  of  articles  on  the  USE  OF  THE 
SCROLL  SAW  are  now  in  course  of  publication  in  the  YoUNG  SCIENTIST,  has  pre- 
pared for  us  a  series  of 

of  which  the  following  is  a  list : 

No.  I. — This  shows  one  side,  back,  and  bottom,  of  a  pen  rack.  It  may  be  made 
of  ebony,   walnut,   or   other  d<irk  wood. 

No.  2. — Design  for  inlaying  drawer  fronts,  table  tops,  box  lids,  and  many  other 
things.     It  is  a  sumach  leaf  pattern. 

No.  3- — Design  for  a  thermometer  stand.  It  may  be  made  of  any  hard  wood  or 
alabaster.      The  method  of  putting  together  is  obvious. 

No.  4. —  This  shows  a  design  for  a  lamp  screen.  The  open  part  may  be  covered 
with  tinted  silk,  or  other  suitable  material,  with  some  appropriate  device  worked  on 
with  the  needle,  or,  if  preferred,  ornaments  may  be  painted  on  the  silk,  etc. 

No.  5. — A  case  for   containing  visiting  cards.       Will  look  best  made  of  white  holly. 

No.  6. — A  placque  stand,     it  may  be  made  of  any  kind  of  dark  or  medium  wood. 

No.  7. — .\  design  for  ornaments  suitable  for  a  window  cornice.  It  should  be 
made  of  black  walnut,  and  overlaid  on  some  light  colored  hard  wood. 

No.  8 — A  desigTi  for  a  jewel  casket.  This  will  be  very  pretty  made  of  white  holly 
and  lined  with  blue  velvet       It  also  looks  well  made  of  ebony  lined  with  crimson. 

No.  9. — Frame.        Will  look  well  made  of  any  dark  wood. 

No.  10. — Frame.  Intended  to  be  made  in  pairs.  Looks  well  made  of  white  holly, 
with  leaves  and  flowers  painred  on  wide  siile. 

No.  II. — Horseshoe.  Can  be  made  of  any  kind  of  wood  and  used  for  a  pen  rack. 
When  decorated  with   gold  and  colors,  looks  verj'  handsome. 

No.  12. — Design  for  a  hinge  strap.  If  made  of  black  walnut,  and  planted  on  a 
white  or  oaken  door,  will   look  well. 

No.  13. — Design  for  a  napkin  ring.     May  be  made  of  any  kind  of  hard  wood. 

No.  14. — Hinge  strap  for  doors  with  narrow  stiles. 

No.  15. — Centre   ornament  for  panel. 

No.  16. — Corner  ornament  for  panel. 

No.  17. — Key-hole  escutcheon. 

These  designs  we  have  had  photo-lithographed  and  printed  on  good  paper,  so  that 
the  outlines  are  sharp,  and  the  opposite  sides  of  each  design  symmetrical.  Common 
designs  are  printed  from  coarse  wooden  blocks,  and  are  rough  and  unequal,  so  that 
it  is  often  impossible  to  make  good  work  from  them. 

The  series  embraces  over  forty  different  pieces,  and  designs  of  equal  quality  cannot 
be  had  for  less  than  five,  ten  or  fifteen  cents  each.  We  offer  them  for  twenty-fiVQ 
cents  for  the  set,  which  is  an  average  price  of  only  one  cent  and  a  half  each. 

Mailed  to  any  address  on  receipt  of  pri<;e, 


SHEET  NO.    I. 


SHEET   NO.    2. 


RKDUCK.n  FIGURES  OF 

SEW    DESIGNS    FOR    FRET    OR    SCROLL    SAWYERS. 

SIZE  OF   SHEETS   28    BY   22    INCHES. 

ii'or  description  see  preeeding  page.) 


